definition of field visit

• More from M-W
• To save this word, you'll need to log in. Log In

Definition of field trip

Examples of field trip in a sentence.

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'field trip.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

1926, in the meaning defined above

Dictionary Entries Near field trip

field trial

Cite this Entry

“Field trip.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/field%20trip. Accessed 19 May. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of field trip, more from merriam-webster on field trip.

Thesaurus: All synonyms and antonyms for field trip

Subscribe to America's largest dictionary and get thousands more definitions and advanced search—ad free!

Can you solve 4 words at once?

Word of the day.

See Definitions and Examples »

Get Word of the Day daily email!

Popular in Grammar & Usage

More commonly misspelled words, your vs. you're: how to use them correctly, every letter is silent, sometimes: a-z list of examples, more commonly mispronounced words, how to use em dashes (—), en dashes (–) , and hyphens (-), popular in wordplay, the words of the week - may 17, birds say the darndest things, a great big list of bread words, 10 scrabble words without any vowels, 12 more bird names that sound like insults (and sometimes are), games & quizzes.

• Go School Trip - Make Better Tomorrow

• Products search
• Vietnam School Trips
• Cambodia School Trips
• Laos School Trips
• Myanmar School Trips
• Thailand School Trips
• Indonesia School Trips
• Japan School Trips
• Singapore School Trips
• China School Trips

School Trip Blog

What is field trip | definition of field trip in education.

The term “field trip” has been known for decades in many sectors and it is a common term used in worldwide schools. It seems that a field trip is a favorite part of both teachers and students who are keen on learning and discovering. So, what is a field trip in education? Scroll down to find out the field trip definition and its many types.

Educational Field Trip Definition

A field trip or excursion is a journey taken by a group of people to a place away from their usual environment. In education, field trips are defined as visits to an outside area of the normal classroom and made by a teacher and students for purposes of firsthand observation. A field trip can be expressed in many terminologies. People call educational trips or school tours in the UK and New Zealand, and school tours in the Philippines. Field trips are a popular method carried out for students to introduce to the concepts, experiences, and ideas that cannot be given in a classroom environment. School tours can be considered as short-term learning activities providing students the opportunity to observe their chosen subject outside of a classroom setting. Exploring other cultures and customs, getting to the motherland of languages, uncovering pristine nature and experiencing fascinating local life are striking demonstrations of educational school trips

Types of Field Trips

Those listed field trip ideas that help to clear field trip meaning. Efficient educational tours can spark students’ imagination, give them valuable experiences and refresh their minds after days with pencils and papers. A school tour can be themed with one type of field trip or combined by various school trip ideas.

Sightseeing Field Trip

Students are definitely eager the most to sightseeing school trips enchanting them by a myriad of appealing attractions in their wish destination. Admire well-known attractions, explore historic structures, discover World Heritage Sites, unwind on spectacular landscapes and freshen in front of scenic vista are incredible activities that gain huge interests from students and strongly inspire them.

Language and Culture Educational Field Trip

For students learning foreign languages, field trips are very important and helpful to improve the language and explore the alluring indigenous culture. Join immersive activities, stay at a local homestay, take language lessons and visit local markets enable students to practice the language, get a deeper understanding of local culture and their captivating paces of life.

Gardening and Farming Field Trip

This might be an interesting activity attracts lots of students’ attention thanks to its strangeness to their usual life. Discover specialty farms that grow the normal crop and even irregular crops will surprise curious students. Learn how vegetables are produced, explore and give a try to do traditional farming techniques of local people leaves memorable experiences for students.

Manufacturing Facility Field Trip

Students can be guided to any factory where equipment, cars, tools, packaging or any other things are made. The mechanized facilities and assembly lines are interesting for students to learn about the production process, how raw materials are utilized and how workers use them to make the final product.

Eco-adventure Field Trip

Discover the natural world is a highly important perspective in the educational sector. Students can be entertained and refreshed by trekking through untouched natural beauties to inspect local plant life and wildlife animals. This opportunity also adds to local historical factors such as early life remnants.

Business Educational Tour

Take business study trips, your students will be delighted by bustling financial and business centers. Business study trips help process business theories in the classroom into life as students explore great commercial organizations. Business field trip gives students the chance to immerse in stimulating and dynamic environments. Visit a range of famed organizations and large corporations will perfect business school trips.

Username or email address  *

Password  *

Remember me Log in

Lost your password?

The Enlightened Mindset

Exploring the World of Knowledge and Understanding

Welcome to the world's first fully AI generated website!

What is a Field Trip: Exploring the Benefits, Challenges, and Creative Ideas

By Happy Sharer

Introduction: What is a Field Trip?

A field trip is an educational excursion outside of the classroom environment. It is an opportunity for students to gain first-hand experience with the material they are learning in class. Field trips can take place at local attractions, museums, historic sites, nature centers, and more. They can also be conducted virtually, allowing students to explore faraway places without ever leaving the classroom.

Overview of Field Trips: Exploring the Benefits and Challenges

Field trips are an important part of any school curriculum. They provide an opportunity for students to gain real-world experience with the material they are learning in class. However, there are both benefits and challenges associated with field trips that must be considered before planning one.

Benefits of Field Trips

The most obvious benefit of field trips is that they give students the chance to experience the material they are learning in class in a real-world setting. According to a study conducted by the National Education Association, “Field trips provide students with experiences that cannot be replicated in the classroom. They offer opportunities to explore concepts from a different perspective, to observe firsthand what has been read about in textbooks, and to make connections between course content and real life.”

In addition to providing an opportunity for experiential learning, field trips can also help to engage student interest in the subject matter. A study conducted by the University of Texas found that students who went on field trips were more likely to remember the material they had learned than those who did not go on the trip. Furthermore, field trips can spark curiosity and inspire students to ask questions and seek out further knowledge.

Challenges of Field Trips

Despite their many benefits, field trips can present some challenges. One of the biggest challenges associated with field trips is the cost. Depending on where you are traveling and the size of your group, the expenses can quickly add up. Additionally, finding the time to plan and execute a successful field trip can be difficult for teachers who already have a full schedule.

Safety is another issue that must be taken into consideration when planning a field trip. It is important to ensure that all students are supervised at all times and that the destination is appropriate for the age and maturity level of the students.

Tips for Planning a Successful Field Trip

Planning a successful field trip requires careful consideration of multiple factors. Here are some tips to keep in mind when planning a field trip.

Establish Goals

Before planning a field trip, it is important to establish clear goals. Ask yourself why you are taking the students on the trip and what you hope to accomplish. This will help to ensure that the field trip is meaningful and relevant to the material being taught in class.

Choose an Appropriate Destination

Once you have established your goals, it is important to choose a destination that is appropriate for the age and maturity level of the students. When selecting a location, consider the interests and abilities of the students and make sure that the destination offers something that will be interesting and engaging for them.

Develop an Itinerary

Once you have selected a destination, it is important to develop an itinerary that outlines the activities for the day. Make sure there is enough time for each activity and that the activities are relevant to the goals you have established for the trip.

Manage Safety Issues

Safety should always be a top priority when planning a field trip. Make sure that all students are supervised at all times and that the destination is appropriate for the age and maturity level of the students. Additionally, be sure to review any safety policies or procedures with the students prior to the trip.

A Guide to Creating a Meaningful Field Trip Experience

Creating a meaningful field trip experience requires careful planning and preparation. Here are some tips to ensure that your students get the most out of their field trip.

Set Clear Expectations

Prior to the field trip, it is important to set clear expectations for the students. Explain to them the purpose of the trip and what you hope they will gain from the experience. Additionally, discuss any rules or guidelines that need to be followed during the trip.

Make Connections with Course Material

When planning the activities for the field trip, look for ways to connect the material to the course content. This will help to ensure that the students gain a deeper understanding of the material and that the trip is meaningful and relevant.

Utilize Time Wisely

Time management is key to ensuring a successful field trip. Make sure that all activities are planned in advance and that the students understand what is expected of them. Additionally, leave room for flexibility in case something unexpected arises.

How Field Trips Enhance Learning in the Classroom

Field trips can be an invaluable tool for enhancing learning in the classroom. Here are some of the ways that field trips can benefit students.

Engaging Student Interest

Field trips can help to engage student interest in the subject matter. Experiencing the material firsthand can make it easier for students to understand and relate to the material being taught in class.

Building Critical Thinking Skills

Field trips can also help to build critical thinking skills. Students are exposed to new information and must process it in order to gain a better understanding of the material. This helps to develop problem-solving abilities and encourages students to think more deeply about the material.

Developing Problem-Solving Abilities

Field trips can also help to develop problem-solving abilities. Students are exposed to new environments and must find ways to navigate them. This helps to build confidence and teaches students how to think on their feet.

The Value of Field Trips for Students

Field trips can be a valuable learning experience for students. Here are some of the ways that field trips can benefit students.

Developing Self-Confidence

Field trips can help to boost self-confidence. Being in unfamiliar surroundings can be intimidating, but it can also be a great opportunity for students to practice problem-solving skills and develop self-confidence.

Strengthening Interpersonal Relationships

Field trips can also help to strengthen interpersonal relationships among students. Working together to navigate new environments and solve problems can help to foster teamwork and collaboration.

Acquiring New Knowledge and Experiences

Finally, field trips can open students up to new knowledge and experiences. Seeing things firsthand can help to bring the material to life and make it easier for students to understand and remember.

Creative Ideas for Field Trips

There are many creative ways to incorporate field trips into the classroom. Here are some ideas for fun and engaging field trips.

Museum Visits

Museums are a great way to introduce students to a variety of topics. From art and history to science and technology, there are a variety of museums that offer educational experiences for students of all ages.

Local Attractions

Local attractions can be a great way to introduce students to the community and its culture. Consider visiting historical sites, parks, zoos, or aquariums for an interactive and fun learning experience.

Nature Walks

Nature walks are a great way to get students outdoors and exploring their natural surroundings. Not only can this be a fun activity, but it can also be a great way to introduce students to concepts such as ecology and conservation.

Virtual Field Trips: Taking Education Beyond the Classroom

Technology has opened up a world of possibilities for educators looking to take their students on field trips. Virtual field trips allow students to explore faraway places without ever leaving the classroom.

Advantages of Virtual Field Trips

Virtual field trips come with a number of advantages. They are often less expensive than traditional field trips, and they can be used to explore destinations that would otherwise be inaccessible. Additionally, virtual field trips can be tailored to fit the curriculum and the specific needs of the students.

Types of Virtual Field Trips

There are a variety of types of virtual field trips available. These include virtual tours of museums and historical sites, live video streams of events, and interactive simulations of different environments. Each type of virtual field trip offers a unique experience and can be used to enhance learning in the classroom.

Tips for Planning a Virtual Field Trip

When planning a virtual field trip, it is important to do your research. Check to see if the destination offers a virtual tour and make sure that the technology needed is available and easy to use. Additionally, make sure to set clear expectations and goals for the virtual field trip and to create an itinerary that outlines the activities for the day.

Field trips can be a valuable learning experience for students. They provide an opportunity for students to gain first-hand experience with the material they are learning in class and can help to engage student interest in the subject matter. Additionally, field trips can help to build critical thinking skills and develop problem-solving abilities. Finally, virtual field trips offer an exciting way to explore faraway places without ever leaving the classroom. With careful planning and preparation, field trips can be a fun and educational experience for everyone involved.

(Note: Is this article not meeting your expectations? Do you have knowledge or insights to share? Unlock new opportunities and expand your reach by joining our authors team. Click Registration to join us and share your expertise with our readers.)

Hi, I'm Happy Sharer and I love sharing interesting and useful knowledge with others. I have a passion for learning and enjoy explaining complex concepts in a simple way.

Related Post

Exploring japan: a comprehensive guide for your memorable journey, your ultimate guide to packing for a perfect trip to hawaii, the ultimate packing checklist: essentials for a week-long work trip, leave a reply cancel reply.

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Expert Guide: Removing Gel Nail Polish at Home Safely

Trading crypto in bull and bear markets: a comprehensive examination of the differences, making croatia travel arrangements, make their day extra special: celebrate with a customized cake.

Field Trip Fundamentals: Understanding the Essence of Educational Visits

Table of Contents

Welcome to our comprehensive guide on educational visits, also known as field trips, and their importance in the learning journey of students. These trips go beyond the traditional classroom setting, providing students with hands-on experiences, real-world connections, and opportunities for growth.

Research has consistently shown that educational visits have a profound impact on student learning. Through experiential learning, students develop a deeper understanding of the concepts taught in the classroom and gain valuable knowledge. These trips spark curiosity, foster engagement, and motivate students to explore subjects further.

Teachers play a vital role in planning and coordinating educational visits to ensure maximum impact. They carefully select destinations, plan activities, and facilitate meaningful learning experiences for their students. By integrating these visits, teachers enrich the curriculum and offer students diverse learning opportunities.

Key Takeaways:

• Educational visits, or field trips, enhance student learning by providing hands-on experiences.
• Experiential learning during field trips promotes a deeper understanding of classroom concepts.
• Teachers play an active role in planning and coordinating educational visits.
• Educational visits enrich the curriculum and offer students diverse learning opportunities.
• Field trips spark curiosity, foster engagement, and motivate students to explore subjects further.

The Importance of Experiential Learning

Experiential learning is a key aspect of educational visits. It allows students to directly participate and engage with the subject matter, resulting in a more positive attitude towards the topic. Numerous studies have shown that students who participate in field trips gain valuable knowledge and develop a deeper understanding of the concepts they learn in the classroom. Furthermore, these experiences can spark students’ interest in the subject and potentially lead to improved learning outcomes.

The Benefits of Experiential Learning

During educational visits, students have the opportunity to apply theoretical knowledge in practical ways. This hands-on experience enables them to see the real-world relevance of what they learn in the classroom. By actively engaging with the subject matter, students develop a deeper understanding and retain the information for a longer period of time.

Research has consistently shown that experiential learning leads to enhanced knowledge acquisition and retention. For example, a study conducted by Smith et al. (2020) found that students who participated in science field trips not only improved their conceptual understanding but also performed better on subsequent assessments compared to their peers who did not go on field trips.

Moreover, experiential learning ignites students’ curiosity and intellectual engagement. When students have the opportunity to explore, observe, and interact with the world around them, it stimulates their natural curiosity and encourages them to ask questions and seek deeper understanding. This sense of curiosity and intellectual engagement can foster a love for learning and extend beyond the classroom, making students more self-driven in their educational journey.

Experiential learning also has a positive impact on student interest in the subject. When students have a firsthand experience of a topic, they are more likely to develop a personal connection and genuine interest. This increased interest can lead to greater motivation, participation, and a desire to pursue further knowledge and exploration in that particular subject area.

To further illustrate the importance of experiential learning, let’s take a look at a real-world example:

This immersive experience allows students to develop a deeper understanding of marine biology concepts, appreciate the complexity of marine ecosystems, and witness the real-world impact of science. By engaging in experiential learning, students not only acquire knowledge but also develop critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration skills that are essential for their future success.

In the next section, we will explore how educational visits provide real-world learning opportunities and expand students’ horizons beyond the confines of the classroom.

Real World Learning Through Field Trips

Field trips offer students a unique opportunity to gain real-world experience and engage in hands-on learning outside the classroom. By venturing beyond the traditional academic setting, students can witness firsthand the practical applications of theoretical concepts. These educational visits to captivating field trip destinations allow students to experience the rich cultural heritage and natural beauty of different locations, leaving a lasting impact on their understanding and appreciation of the subject matter.

One such extraordinary destination is Bali, an island known for its cultural treasures and breathtaking landscapes. Students can delve into the wonders of the Monkey Forest, where they can observe indigenous species in their natural habitat and learn about the significance of these creatures in Balinese folklore. Another remarkable field trip destination in Bali is the Ulun Danu Bratan Temple, a sacred Hindu temple located on the shores of Lake Bratan. Students can immerse themselves in the spirituality and the architectural brilliance of this serene temple, gaining insights into Balinese customs and practices.

These field trips offer students more than just a change of scenery; they provide them with real experiences and interactive learning opportunities that stimulate curiosity and foster a deeper understanding of the subject matter. Through these firsthand encounters with different cultures and environments, students develop a broader perspective and a sense of appreciation for the world around them.

Let’s take a closer look at how real-world experience and hands-on learning during educational visits can impact student learning:

Benefits of Real-World Experience

Table: Key Benefits of Real-World Experience

Real-world experience through field trips provides students with a multidimensional learning experience that cannot be replicated within the confines of a classroom. As they explore field trip destinations like Bali’s Monkey Forest and Ulun Danu Bratan Temple, students engage with real-life examples of the subjects they study, creating lasting memories and a deep connection to the material. These experiences enhance their overall educational journey and equip them with valuable skills for future academic and personal success.

Continue reading about the benefits of educational visits in our next section: The Socio-Emotional Benefits of Field Trips.

The Socio-Emotional Benefits of Field Trips

Field trips offer more than just academic learning; they also provide valuable socio-emotional benefits for students. By exposing students to diverse cultures and environments, educational visits cultivate empathy and tolerance, important qualities in today’s interconnected world.

Interacting with individuals from different backgrounds fosters empathy, allowing students to develop a deeper understanding and appreciation for others’ perspectives and experiences. Field trips create opportunities for students to step outside their comfort zones and engage with individuals who may have different beliefs, customs, or socioeconomic backgrounds.

Collaboration is another key aspect of field trips that enhances students’ social skills. Working together with their peers and adult guides during educational visits promotes effective communication, teamwork, and problem-solving. Students learn to listen to others’ ideas, compromise, and contribute to a shared goal, replicating real-world scenarios where collaboration is paramount.

These socio-emotional benefits have far-reaching implications for students’ future success. Developing empathy and tolerance equips students with the social skills necessary for building positive relationships, resolving conflicts, and thriving in diverse environments. By fostering these skills through field trips, educational institutions contribute to the holistic growth and development of students.

Examples of Socio-Emotional Benefits:

• Increased empathy and understanding of different cultures
• Enhanced tolerance towards others’ perspectives and experiences
• Improved communication and teamwork skills
• Development of problem-solving abilities

By embracing field trips as an integral part of education, we nurture the socio-emotional growth of students, promoting a more compassionate and inclusive society.

Academic Impact of Field Trips

Research has consistently shown the significant impact of field trips on students’ academic performance. These educational visits provide valuable hands-on learning experiences that contribute to enhanced concept retention and improved overall academic outcomes.

During field trips, students engage with content in varied ways, offering a multisensory learning experience that cannot be replicated in the classroom alone. This active participation allows students to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world contexts, deepening their understanding of the subject matter.

Studies have indicated that students who participate in field trips demonstrate improved test scores, indicating a higher level of academic performance. The combination of experiential learning, concept retention, and multisensory engagement fosters a more comprehensive educational experience, empowering students to actively explore and internalize information.

Benefits of Field Trips for Academic Performance:

• Enhanced concept retention through hands-on learning experiences
• Improved test scores and academic performance
• Deeper understanding of subject matter
• Application of theoretical knowledge in real-world contexts
• Engagement with content through multisensory learning

In summary, field trips have a profound impact on students’ academic performance by providing them with immersive learning experiences that promote concept retention and foster a deeper understanding of the subject matter. The combination of hands-on learning, multisensory engagement, and real-world applications creates a dynamic educational environment that leads to improved academic outcomes.

Enriching the Curriculum Through Field Trips

Field trips provide an opportunity to enrich the curriculum and offer students a more comprehensive learning experience. By incorporating educational visits, we can expose students to a wider range of learning opportunities and connect classroom concepts to real-world contexts. These diverse experiences allow students to gain a deeper understanding of the curriculum and make meaningful connections between different subjects.

When students participate in field trips, they have the chance to engage with the world outside the classroom walls. They can witness firsthand the practical applications of the knowledge and skills they acquire in school. Whether it’s a visit to a historical site, a science museum, or an art gallery, students can see how the concepts they learn in class come to life in the real world. By immersing themselves in these experiences, students expand their horizons and develop a broader perspective.

Field trips also provide an opportunity for curriculum expansion. Teachers have the flexibility to tailor the curriculum to the specific needs and interests of their students. They can design field trip activities that align with the curriculum objectives, enabling students to delve deeper into the topics they are studying. For example, a science field trip to a nature reserve can expand on biology lessons by allowing students to observe and study different ecosystems and the biodiversity within them.

Furthermore, field trips foster a multidisciplinary approach to learning. Students can see how different subjects intersect and relate to one another in real-world contexts. For instance, a visit to a historical site can incorporate elements of history, art, architecture, and even literature. By experiencing these connections firsthand, students develop a broader understanding of various subjects and how they intertwine in the real world.

Curriculum enrichment through field trips not only enhances students’ knowledge and understanding but also sparks curiosity and a love for learning. Students become more engaged and motivated as they see the relevance and practical applications of what they are learning. By broadening their educational experiences, we help students develop a thirst for knowledge that extends beyond the traditional confines of the classroom.

Benefits of Curriculum Enrichment through Field Trips:

• Enhanced understanding of curriculum concepts
• Meaningful connections between different subjects
• Flexibility to tailor the curriculum to student needs
• Promotion of multidisciplinary learning
• Increased student engagement and motivation

Curriculum enrichment through field trips is an invaluable tool in providing students with comprehensive learning experiences. As educators, we have the opportunity to expand our students’ horizons, foster their curiosity, and create memorable learning moments that resonate with them for years to come. By incorporating educational visits into our curriculum, we can create a rich and diverse learning environment that prepares students for success in the real world.

Continue reading about the impact of educational visits on students’ overall development and academic achievements at Exquisitive Education.

Building Lifelong Memories Through Field Trips

Field trips offer students the opportunity to create lasting memories that will stay with them for years to come. These memorable experiences serve as powerful motivators, fueling their desire to continue learning and exploring new ideas. When students share their field trip stories and experiences with family and friends, they not only reinforce their own memories but also strengthen their relationships and inspire others to embark on their own educational journeys. Field trips provide unique stories to tell and serve as a reminder of the personal growth and development that students have achieved.

Storytelling plays a significant role in preserving the memories and experiences gained during field trips. As students recount their adventures, they reinforce the knowledge and connections they formed during the trip, deepening their understanding of the subject matter. Furthermore, storytelling allows students to reflect on their own personal growth and highlight the transformative impact that field trips had on their lives.

Benefits of Building Lifelong Memories Through Field Trips

The essence of educational visits.

Educational visits, also known as field trips, offer students a hands-on experience that goes beyond the confines of the classroom. These visits provide students with the opportunity to explore and interact with different environments, cultures, and ideas. By stepping outside their comfort zones, students develop important skills such as problem-solving, communication, and adaptability. Additionally, educational visits expose students to diverse cultures, fostering empathy, and a broader worldview.

When students engage in educational visits, they have the chance to apply their knowledge in real-world contexts. Whether it’s visiting a historical site, exploring a science museum, or immersing themselves in a different culture, these experiences allow students to see the relevance of their classroom learning in the world around them. The hands-on nature of educational visits also enhances students’ understanding and retention of the subject matter.

Moreover, educational visits provide students with exposure to different cultures, fostering a sense of empathy and understanding. By interacting with people from diverse backgrounds, students develop a deeper appreciation for different perspectives and ways of life. This exposure helps build bridges between communities and promotes a more inclusive society.

Benefits of Educational Visits:

• Hands-on Experience: Educational visits provide students with practical, experiential learning opportunities that deepen their understanding.
• Real-world Context: By stepping outside the classroom, students can see the relevance of their learning in the real world.
• Cultural Exposure: Educational visits expose students to different cultures, fostering empathy and a broader worldview.
• Skills Development: Students develop important skills such as problem-solving, communication, and adaptability through educational visits.
• Memorable Experiences: Field trips create lasting memories that inspire students and encourage lifelong learning.

Overall, educational visits offer students a unique and invaluable educational experience. They provide hands-on learning opportunities, exposure to different cultures, and the chance to develop important life skills. With the multitude of benefits they offer, educational visits should be an integral part of every student’s educational journey.

Benefits for Teachers and Parents

Educational visits offer numerous benefits not only for students but also for teachers and parents. These field trips provide an opportunity for teachers to engage with students in a different setting, delivering information in a more interactive and engaging manner. By stepping outside the traditional classroom environment, teachers can tap into students’ curiosity and create memorable learning experiences.

Field trips also play a crucial role in fostering parental involvement in their child’s education. Parents have the chance to accompany their children on these educational visits, allowing them to actively participate in their child’s learning journey. This involvement fosters a sense of collaboration between parents and teachers, establishing a strong support system for the student’s educational development.

Moreover, educational visits demonstrate a commitment to providing students with a well-rounded education that extends beyond the classroom. By investing in these trips, schools and parents show their dedication to enriching students’ learning experiences and providing them with diverse opportunities to explore and engage with the world around them. These investments contribute to students’ overall growth and development.

Teacher Engagement

Educational visits rejuvenate teachers’ passion for teaching by allowing them to experiment with innovative teaching methods and interact with students outside of the usual academic environment. Teachers can explore various teaching strategies during these field trips, catering to different learning styles and individual needs. This engagement not only benefits the students but also reinvigorates teachers’ professional growth.

Parental Involvement

Field trips offer parents a unique chance to actively participate in their child’s education. By accompanying their child on these visits, parents can witness firsthand the learning experiences and academic growth of their children. This involvement creates stronger bonds between parents, teachers, and students, fostering a collaborative partnership in supporting the student’s educational journey.

Educational Investment

Investing in educational trips showcases a commitment to providing students with a comprehensive and holistic education. By exposing students to real-world experiences, cultural diversity, and hands-on learning opportunities, schools and parents invest in broadening students’ perspectives and enhancing their overall educational development. These investments contribute to students’ lifelong learning and equip them with the skills and knowledge necessary for future success.

The Value of Educational Visits

Educational visits have immense value in shaping students’ educational journey. They provide students with unique learning experiences that foster curiosity, empathy, and a deeper understanding of the world around them. These visits have a long-term impact on students’ academic performance, social skills, and personal growth. By investing in educational visits, schools and parents are investing in the holistic development and future success of their students.

When students participate in educational visits, they are exposed to new environments, cultures, and ideas. This exposure broadens their perspective and helps them develop a more nuanced understanding of the subjects they study in school.

For example, a history field trip to a local museum allows students to see artifacts and documents firsthand, bringing history to life in a way that textbooks cannot. This immersive experience helps students make connections between past events and the present, deepening their comprehension of historical concepts.

Furthermore, educational visits provide students with hands-on learning opportunities that engage their senses. This multisensory approach enhances their learning experience and improves information retention. For instance, a science field trip to a nature reserve allows students to observe plants and animals in their natural habitat, reinforcing their understanding of ecological concepts.

Educational visits also contribute to the holistic development of students. By engaging in real-world experiences, students develop social and emotional skills such as teamwork, communication, and adaptability. These skills are essential for navigating interpersonal relationships and succeeding in various aspects of life.

In summary, the value of educational visits cannot be underestimated. They provide students with unique learning experiences, have a long-term impact on academic performance, and contribute to the holistic development of individuals. Investing in educational visits is an investment in the future success and well-rounded education of students.

In conclusion, educational visits or field trips are invaluable in enhancing students’ learning experiences. These visits provide numerous benefits, including hands-on learning, exposure to different cultures, and opportunities for social and academic growth. By embarking on educational visits, students engage in experiential learning that goes beyond traditional classroom settings.

One of the major benefits of educational visits is their ability to enrich the curriculum. By exploring real-world contexts, students make meaningful connections between classroom concepts and their practical applications. This comprehensive learning experience not only deepens their understanding but also ignites their curiosity, fostering a love for lifelong learning .

Educational visits also create lifelong memories that students can cherish. These experiences serve as powerful catalysts, sparking a continued enthusiasm for learning and exploration. Moreover, through interactions with diverse environments and cultures, students develop essential skills such as empathy, tolerance, and communication, which are vital for success in today’s interconnected world.

Investing in educational visits is, therefore, an investment in the holistic development and future success of students. Through these transformative experiences, students gain valuable knowledge, skills, and a broader worldview that extends far beyond the confines of the classroom, enabling them to thrive in an ever-evolving, global society.

About The Author

Ethan Emerson

Ethan Emerson is a passionate author and dedicated advocate for the transformative power of education. With a background in teaching and a love for writing, Ethan brings a unique blend of expertise and creativity to his contributions on ExquisitiveEducation.com .His articles are a delightful mix of insightful knowledge and engaging storytelling, aiming to inspire and empower learners of all ages. Ethan's mission is to ignite the spark of curiosity and foster a love for learning in every reader.Ethan Emerson, is your companion in the realm of general education exploration. With a passion for knowledge, He delves into the intricate world of Education Expenses & Discounts , uncovering financial insights for your educational journey. From the vitality of Physical Education to the synergy of Education & Technology , Ethan's here to bridge the gap between traditional and innovative learning methods. Discover the art of crafting impressive Resume & Personal Documentation in Education , as well as insights into diverse Career Paths, Degrees & Educational Requirements . Join Ethan in navigating through a sea of Educational Courses & Classes , exploring the nuances of various Education Systems , and understanding the empowering realm of Special Education . With an eye on Teaching & Teachers , He offers a glimpse into the world of educators who shape minds. Let's unlock Studying Tips & Learning Methods that turn education into a delightful journey of growth with Exquisitive Education .

Related Posts

Discover Which Group is a Primary Supporter of Hunter Education

Exploring How Education Affects Voter Turnout in the US

Discover What is the Essence of Learning: Unlock Your Potential.

Leave a reply cancel reply.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Skip to main content
• Skip to primary sidebar
• Skip to footer
• QuestionPro

• Solutions Industries Gaming Automotive Sports and events Education Government Travel & Hospitality Financial Services Healthcare Cannabis Technology Use Case NPS+ Communities Audience Contactless surveys Mobile LivePolls Member Experience GDPR Positive People Science 360 Feedback Surveys
• Resources Blog eBooks Survey Templates Case Studies Training Help center

Home Market Research

What is Field Research: Definition, Methods, Examples and Advantages

What is Field Research?

Field research is defined as a qualitative method of data collection that aims to observe, interact and understand people while they are in a natural environment. For example, nature conservationists observe behavior of animals in their natural surroundings and the way they react to certain scenarios. In the same way, social scientists conducting field research may conduct interviews or observe people from a distance to understand how they behave in a social environment and how they react to situations around them.

Learn more about: Market Research

Field research encompasses a diverse range of social research methods including direct observation, limited participation, analysis of documents and other information, informal interviews, surveys etc. Although field research is generally characterized as qualitative research, it often involves multiple aspects of quantitative research in it.

Field research typically begins in a specific setting although the end objective of the study is to observe and analyze the specific behavior of a subject in that setting. The cause and effect of a certain behavior, though, is tough to analyze due to presence of multiple variables in a natural environment. Most of the data collection is based not entirely on cause and effect but mostly on correlation. While field research looks for correlation, the small sample size makes it difficult to establish a causal relationship between two or more variables.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

Methods of Field Research

Field research is typically conducted in 5 distinctive methods. They are:

• Direct Observation

In this method, the data is collected via an observational method or subjects in a natural environment. In this method, the behavior or outcome of situation is not interfered in any way by the researcher. The advantage of direct observation is that it offers contextual data on people management , situations, interactions and the surroundings. This method of field research is widely used in a public setting or environment but not in a private environment as it raises an ethical dilemma.

• Participant Observation

In this method of field research, the researcher is deeply involved in the research process, not just purely as an observer, but also as a participant. This method too is conducted in a natural environment but the only difference is the researcher gets involved in the discussions and can mould the direction of the discussions. In this method, researchers live in a comfortable environment with the participants of the research design , to make them comfortable and open up to in-depth discussions.

• Ethnography

Ethnography is an expanded observation of social research and social perspective and the cultural values of an  entire social setting. In ethnography, entire communities are observed objectively. For example,  if a researcher would like to understand how an Amazon tribe lives their life and operates, he/she may chose to observe them or live amongst them and silently observe their day-to-day behavior.

LEARN ABOUT: Behavioral Targeting

• Qualitative Interviews

Qualitative interviews are close-ended questions that are asked directly to the research subjects. The qualitative interviews could be either informal and conversational, semi-structured, standardized and open-ended or a mix of all the above three. This provides a wealth of data to the researcher that they can sort through. This also helps collect relational data. This method of field research can use a mix of one-on-one interviews, focus groups and text analysis .

LEARN ABOUT: Qualitative Interview

A case study research is an in-depth analysis of a person, situation or event. This method may look difficult to operate, however, it is one of the simplest ways of conducting research as it involves a deep dive and thorough understanding the data collection methods and inferring the data.

Steps in Conducting Field Research

Due to the nature of field research, the magnitude of timelines and costs involved, field research can be very tough to plan, implement and measure. Some basic steps in the management of field research are:

• Build the Right Team: To be able to conduct field research, having the right team is important. The role of the researcher and any ancillary team members is very important and defining the tasks they have to carry out with defined relevant milestones is important. It is important that the upper management too is vested in the field research for its success.
• Recruiting People for the Study: The success of the field research depends on the people that the study is being conducted on. Using sampling methods , it is important to derive the people that will be a part of the study.
• Data Collection Methodology: As spoken in length about above, data collection methods for field research are varied. They could be a mix of surveys, interviews, case studies and observation. All these methods have to be chalked out and the milestones for each method too have to be chalked out at the outset. For example, in the case of a survey, the survey design is important that it is created and tested even before the research begins.
• Site Visit: A site visit is important to the success of the field research and it is always conducted outside of traditional locations and in the actual natural environment of the respondent/s. Hence, planning a site visit alongwith the methods of data collection is important.
• Data Analysis: Analysis of the data that is collected is important to validate the premise of the field research and  decide the outcome of the field research.
• Communicating Results: Once the data is analyzed, it is important to communicate the results to the stakeholders of the research so that it could be actioned upon.

LEARN ABOUT: Research Process Steps

Field Research Notes

Keeping an ethnographic record is very important in conducting field research. Field notes make up one of the most important aspects of the ethnographic record. The process of field notes begins as the researcher is involved in the observational research process that is to be written down later.

Types of Field Research Notes

The four different kinds of field notes are:

• Job Notes: This method of taking notes is while the researcher is in the study. This could be in close proximity and in open sight with the subject in study. The notes here are short, concise and in condensed form that can be built on by the researcher later. Most researchers do not prefer this method though due to the fear of feeling that the respondent may not take them seriously.
• Field Notes Proper: These notes are to be expanded on immediately after the completion of events. The notes have to be detailed and the words have to be as close to possible as the subject being studied.
• Methodological Notes: These notes contain methods on the research methods used by the researcher, any new proposed research methods and the way to monitor their progress. Methodological notes can be kept with field notes or filed separately but they find their way to the end report of a study.
• Journals and Diaries: This method of field notes is an insight into the life of the researcher. This tracks all aspects of the researchers life and helps eliminate the Halo effect or any research bias that may have cropped up during the field research.

LEARN ABOUT: Causal Research

Reasons to Conduct Field Research

Field research has been commonly used in the 20th century in the social sciences. But in general, it takes a lot of time to conduct and complete, is expensive and in a lot of cases invasive. So why then is this commonly used and is preferred by researchers to validate data? We look at 4 major reasons:

• Overcoming lack of data: Field research resolves the major issue of gaps in data. Very often, there is limited to no data about a topic in study, especially in a specific environment analysis . The research problem might be known or suspected but there is no way to validate this without primary research and data. Conducting field research helps not only plug-in gaps in data but collect supporting material and hence is a preferred research method of researchers.
• Understanding context of the study: In many cases, the data collected is adequate but field research is still conducted. This helps gain insight into the existing data. For example, if the data states that horses from a stable farm generally win races because the horses are pedigreed and the stable owner hires the best jockeys. But conducting field research can throw light into other factors that influence the success like quality of fodder and care provided and conducive weather conditions.
• Increasing the quality of data: Since this research method uses more than one tool to collect data, the data is of higher quality. Inferences can be made from the data collected and can be statistically analyzed via the triangulation of data.
• Collecting ancillary data: Field research puts the researchers in a position of localized thinking which opens them new lines of thinking. This can help collect data that the study didn’t account to collect.

LEARN ABOUT: Behavioral Research

Examples of Field Research

Some examples of field research are:

• Decipher social metrics in a slum Purely by using observational methods and in-depth interviews, researchers can be part of a community to understand the social metrics and social hierarchy of a slum. This study can also understand the financial independence and day-to-day operational nuances of a slum. The analysis of this data can provide an insight into how different a slum is from structured societies.
• U nderstand the impact of sports on a child’s development This method of field research takes multiple years to conduct and the sample size can be very large. The data analysis of this research provides insights into how the kids of different geographical locations and backgrounds respond to sports and the impact of sports on their all round development.
• Study animal migration patterns Field research is used extensively to study flora and fauna. A major use case is scientists monitoring and studying animal migration patterns with the change of seasons. Field research helps collect data across years and that helps draw conclusions about how to safely expedite the safe passage of animals.

LEARN ABOUT:  Social Communication Questionnaire

Advantages of Field Research

The advantages of field research are:

• It is conducted in a real-world and natural environment where there is no tampering of variables and the environment is not doctored.
• Due to the study being conducted in a comfortable environment, data can be collected even about ancillary topics.
• The researcher gains a deep understanding into the research subjects due to the proximity to them and hence the research is extensive, thorough and accurate.

Disadvantages of Field Research

The disadvantages of field research are:

• The studies are expensive and time-consuming and can take years to complete.
• It is very difficult for the researcher to distance themselves from a bias in the research study.
• The notes have to be exactly what the researcher says but the nomenclature is very tough to follow.
• It is an interpretive method and this is subjective and entirely dependent on the ability of the researcher.
• In this method, it is impossible to control external variables and this constantly alters the nature of the research.

LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers

MORE LIKE THIS

Data Information vs Insight: Essential differences

May 14, 2024

Pricing Analytics Software: Optimize Your Pricing Strategy

May 13, 2024

Relationship Marketing: What It Is, Examples & Top 7 Benefits

May 8, 2024

The Best Email Survey Tool to Boost Your Feedback Game

May 7, 2024

Other categories

• Academic Research
• Artificial Intelligence
• Assessments
• Brand Awareness
• Case Studies
• Communities
• Consumer Insights
• Customer effort score
• Customer Engagement
• Customer Experience
• Customer Loyalty
• Customer Research
• Customer Satisfaction
• Employee Benefits
• Employee Engagement
• Employee Retention
• Friday Five
• General Data Protection Regulation
• Insights Hub
• Life@QuestionPro
• Market Research
• Mobile diaries
• Mobile Surveys
• New Features
• Online Communities
• Question Types
• Questionnaire
• QuestionPro Products
• Release Notes
• Research Tools and Apps
• Revenue at Risk
• Survey Templates
• Training Tips
• Uncategorized
• Video Learning Series
• What’s Coming Up
• Workforce Intelligence

Field Trips are Valuable Learning Experiences

January 1st, 2016

This Knowledge Base article was written collaboratively with contributions from Karen Knutson and CAISE Admin. This article was migrated from a previous version of the Knowledge Base. The date stamp does not reflect the original publication date.

Overview 

Field trips are recognized as important moments in learning; a shared social experience that provides the opportunity for students to encounter and explore novel things in an authentic setting. Their importance is supported by professional organizations such as the  National Science Teachers Association  which asserts field trips can “deepen and enhance” classroom study (NSTA 1999) and the  National Research Council  who assert a quality science curriculum is one that extends beyond the walls of the classroom (1996).

Findings from Research and Evaluation 

Outcomes of field trips.

It is important to recognize that learning outcomes from field trips can range from cognitive to affective outcomes (for a review see: Dewitt & Storksdieck, 2008; also  Learning Science in Informal Environments (2009) . Too often, however, only cognitive gains are identified (by schools or museums) ( Kisiel, 2005 ).

Among the many potential outcomes, research has shown that field trips:

Expose students to new experiences and can increase interest and engagement in science regardless of prior interest in a topic (Kisiel, 2005; Bonderup Dohn, 2011),

Result in affective gains such as more positive feelings toward a topic (Csikszentmihalyi & Hermanson, 1995; Nadelson & Jordan, 2012).

Are experiences that can be recalled and useful long after a visit (Salmi, 2003; Falk & Dierking, 1997; Wolins, Jensen, & Ulzheimer, 1992).

Effective Models of Field Trip Experiences

Research has demonstrated that field trips can be designed to more effectively support student learning. Field trips work best when they provide support for students to explore in a personally meaningful way.

Learning in field trips is impacted by many factors (DeWitt & Storksdieck, 2008). The structure of the field trip impacts learning. Some structure is needed to best support student learning, ( Stronck, 1983 ) yet programming that is overly rigid or too aligned with classroom instruction can have a negative effect (Jensen 1994; Griffin & Symington, 1997). If students are not adequately prepared for the experience, the novelty of the setting can negatively impact learning. (Orion & Hofstein, 1994).

Prior knowledge and interests of the students impacts learning during the visit (Falk & Adelman, 2003), the social context of the visit, teacher agendas, student experiences during the field trip, and the presence or absence and quality of preparation and follow-up.

Through a meta-analysis of studies such as these,  DeWitt and Osborne (2007)  created a model to guide museum program development, Model of Museum Practice which, among other key elements, highlights the importance of encouraging students in the area of “joint productive activity” (p. 690). This includes the opportunity for students to be cognitively engaged and challenged, as they explore areas of personal interest and curiosity and engage in bidirectional communication with each other and adult facilitators.

A successful and quality field trip requires teacher preparation and interaction, yet often teachers are not equipped to, or do not provide this support. See: ( Schoolteacher Learning Agenda Influences Student Learning in Museums ; Griffin & Symington, 1997).

References 

Behrendt, M., & Franklin, T. (2014).  A Review of Research on School Field Trips and Their Value in Education. International Journal of Environmental & Science Education 9, 235-245. Doi: 10.12973/ijese.2014.213a

Bell, P., Lewenstein, B., Shouse, A. W., & Feder, M. A., (Eds.) (2009). Learning science in informal environments: People, places, and pursuits. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved from  http://informalscience.org/research/ic-000-000-002-024/LSIE

Bonderup Dohn, N. (2011). Situational interest of high school students who visit an aquarium. Science Education, 95(2), 337-357.  http://informalscience.org/research/ic-000-000-008-700/Situational_Interest_of_High_School_Students_Who_Visit_an_Aquarium

Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Hermanson, K. (1995). Intrinsic motivation in museums: Why does one want to learn? In J. H. Falk & L. D. Dierking (Eds.), Public institutions for personal learning (pp.67–77). Washington, DC: American Association of Museums.

DeWitt, J. & Osborne, J. (2007). Supporting teachers on science-focused school trips: Towards an integrated framework of theory and practice. International Journal of Science Education, 29,  685-710.  http://informalscience.org/research/ic-000-000-008-500/Supporting_Teachers_on_Science-Focused_Field_Trips

DeWitt, J., Storksdieck, (2008). A Short Review of School Field Trips: Key Findings from the Past and Implications for the Future. Visitor Studies Vol. 11, 2, 181-197. DOI:10.1080/10645570802355562

Falk, J. & Direking, L. (1997). School field Trips: Assessing their long-term impact. Curator, 40, 211-218. Retrieved from  http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2151-6952.1997.tb01304.x/abstract

Jensen, N. (1994). Children’s perceptions of their museum experiences: A contextual perspective. Children’s Environments, 11(4), 300-324.  Retrieved from  http://informalscience.org/research/ic-000-000-009-681/Children ’s_Perceptions_of_Their_Museum_Experiences  

Kisiel, J. F. (2005). Understanding elementary teacher motivations for science fieldtrips. Science Education, 89(6), 936 – 955. Retrieved from  http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/sce.20085/abstract

Nadelson, L., & Jordan, R. (2012). Student Attitudes Toward and Recall of Outside Day: An Environmental Science Field Trip. The Journal of Educational Research Vol. 105, Iss. 3, 2012. DOI:10.1080/00220671.2011.576715

National Research Council. (1996). National Science Education Standards. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved from  http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=4962

National Science Teachers Association (1999). NSTA Position Statement: Informal Science Education. Retrieved from  http://informalscience.org/research/ic-000-000-009-678/NSTA_Position_Statement

Salmi, H. (2003). Science centres as learning laboratories: experiences of Heureka, the Finnish Science Centre. International Journal of Technology Management, 25, 460–476. Retrieved from  http://www.heureka.fi/portal/englanti/about_heureka/research/international_journal_of_technology_management/

Stronck, D. R. (1983). The comparative effects of different museum tours on children’s attitudes and learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20(4), 283 – 290. Retrieved from   http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/tea.3660200403/abstract

Wolins, I. S., Jensen, N., & Ulzheimer, R. (1992). Children’s memories of museum field trips: A qualitative study. Journal of Museum Education, 17(2), 17–27. Retrieved from   http://www.jstor.org/pss/40478925

Whitesell, E. R. (2016). A Day at the Museum: The Impact of Field Trips on Middle School Science Achievement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. D: 10.1002/tea.21322.

This material is supported by National Science Foundation award DRL-2229061, with previous support under DRL-1612739, DRL-1842633, DRL-1212803, and DRL-0638981. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations contained within InformalScience.org are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of NSF.

Child Care and Early Education Research Connections

Field research.

Field research is a qualitative method of research concerned with understanding and interpreting the social interactions of groups of people, communities, and society by observing and interacting with people in their natural settings. The methods of field research include: direct observation, participant observation, and qualitative interviews. Each of these methods is described here. Terms related to these and other topics in field research are defined in the  Research Glossary .

Direct Observation

Participant observation, qualitative interviews.

Direct observation  is a method of research where the researcher watches and records the activities of individuals or groups engaged in their daily activities. The observations may be unstructured or structured. Unstructured observations involve the researcher observing people and events and recording his/her observations as field notes. Observations are recorded holistically and without the aid of a predetermined guide or protocol. Structured observation, on the other hand, is a technique where a researcher observes people and events using a guide or set protocol that has been developed ahead of time.

Other features of direct observation include:

• The observer does not actively engage the subjects of the study in conversations or interviews, but instead strives to be unobtrusive and detached from the setting.
• Data collected through direct observation may include field notes, checklists and rating scales, documents, and photographs or video images.
• Direct observation is not necessarily an alternative to other types of field methods, such as participant observation or qualitative interviews. Rather, it may be an initial approach to understanding a setting, a group of individuals, or forms of behavior prior to interacting with members or developing interview protocols.
• Direct observation as a research method is most appropriate in open, public settings where anyone has a right to be or congregate. Conducting direct observation in private or closed settings -- without the knowledge or consent of members -- is more likely to raise ethical concerns.

Participant observation  is a field research method whereby the researcher develops an understanding of a group or setting by taking part in the everyday routines and rituals alongside its members. It was originally developed in the early 20th century by anthropologists researching native societies in developing countries. It is now the principal research method used by ethnographers -- specialists within the fields of anthropology and sociology who focus on recording the details of social life occurring in a setting, community, group, or society. The ethnographer, who often lives among the members for months or years, attempts to build trusting relationships so that he or she becomes part of the social setting. As the ethnographer gains the confidence and trust of the members, many will speak and behave in a natural manner in the presence of the ethnographer.

Data from participant observation studies can take several forms:

• Field notes are the primary type of data. The researcher takes notes of his/her observations and experiences and later develops them into detailed, formal field notes.
• Frequently, researchers keep a diary, which is often a more intimate, informal record of the happenings within the setting.
• The practice of participant observation, with its emphasis on developing relationships with members, often leads to both informal, conversational interviews and more formal, in-depth interviews. The data from these interviews can become part of field notes or may consist of separate interview transcripts.

There are a number of advantages and disadvantages to direct and participant observation studies. Here is a list of some of both. While the advantages and disadvantages apply to both types of studies, their impact and importance may not be the same across the two. For example, researchers engaged in both types of observation will develop a rich, deep understanding of the members of the group and the setting in which social interactions occur, but researchers engaged in participant observation research may gain an even deep understanding. And, participant observers have a greater chance of witnessing a wider range of behaviors and events than those engaged in direct observation.

Advantages of observation studies (observational research):

• Provide contextual data on settings, interactions, or individuals.
• A useful tool for generating hypotheses for further study.
• Source of data on events and phenomena that do not involve verbal interactions (e.g., mother-child nonverbal interactions and contact, physical settings where interactions occur).
• The researcher develops a rich, deep understanding of a setting and of the members within the setting.

Disadvantages of observation studies:

• Behaviors observed during direct observation may be unusual or atypical.
• Significant interactions and events may take place when observer is not present.
• Certain topics do not necessarily lend themselves to observation (e.g., attitudes, emotions, affection).
• Reliability of observations can be problematic, especially when multiple observers are involved.
• The researcher must devote a large amount of time (and resources).
• The researcher's objectivity may decline as he or she spends more time among the members of the group.
• The researcher may be faced with a dilemma of choosing between revealing and not revealing his or her identity as a researcher to the members of the group. If he or she introduces him/herself as a researcher, the members may behave differently than if they assume that he or she is just another participant. On the other hand, if the researcher does not, they may feel betrayed upon learning about the research.

Qualitative interviews  are a type of field research method that elicits information and data by directly asking questions of individuals. There are three primary types of qualitative interviews: informal (conversational), semi-structured, and standardized, open-ended. Each is described briefly below along with advantages and disadvantages.

Informal (Conversational) Interviews

• Frequently occur during participant observation or following direct observation.
• The researcher begins by conversing with a member of the group of interest. As the conversation unfolds, the researcher formulates specific questions, often spontaneously, and begins asking them informally.
• Appropriate when the researcher wants maximum flexibility to pursue topics and ideas as they emerge during the exchange

Advantages of informal interviewing:

• Allows the researcher to be responsive to individual differences and to capture emerging information.
• Information that is obtained is not constrained by a predetermined set of questions and/or response categories.
• Permits researcher to delve deeper into a topic and what key terms and constructs mean to study participants.

Disadvantages of informal interviewing:

• May generate less systematic data, which is difficult to classify and analyze.
• The researcher might not be able to capture everything that the interviewee is saying and therefore there is potential for important nuance or information to be lost. For example, the researcher might not have a tape recorder at that moment due to the spontaneous nature of these interviews.
• Quality of the information obtained depends on skills of the interviewer.

Semi-Structured Interviews

• Prior to the interview, a list of predetermined questions or probes, also known as an interview guide, is developed so that each interviewee will respond to a similar series of questions and topics.
• Questions are generally open-ended to elicit as much detail and meaning from the interviewee as possible.
• The researcher is free to pursue and probe other topics as they emerge during the interview.

Advantages of semi-structured interviewing:

• Systematically captures data across interviewees.
• The researcher is able to rephrase or explain questions to the interviewee to ensure that everyone understands the questions the same way and probe (follow-up) a response so that an individual's responses are fully explored.
• Interviewee is allowed the freedom to express his or her views in their own words.

Disadvantages of semi-structured interviewing:

• Does not offer as much flexibility to respond to new topics that unfold during the interview as the informal interview.
• Responses to questions that have been asked in slightly different ways can be more difficult to compare and analyze.
• Interviewer may unconsciously send signals about the types of answers that are expected.

Standardized, Open-Ended Interviews

• Similar to a survey since questions are carefully scripted and written prior to the interview, which serves to minimize variability in question wording and the way questions are asked.
• The researcher asks a uniform series of questions in the same order to each interviewee.
• The questions are open-ended to capture more details and individual differences across interviewees.
• Particularly appropriate for qualitative studies involving multiple interviewers.

Advantages of standardized interviewing:

• All questions are asked the same to each study participant. Data are comparable across interviewees.
• Reduces interviewer effects when several interviewers are used.
• Standardization helps to facilitate the processing and analysis of the data.

Disadvantages of standardized interviewing:

• Does not offer as much flexibility to respond to and probe new topics that unfold during the interview.
• Standardized wording of questions may limit the responses of those being interviewed.

Both standardized and semi-structured interviews involve formally recruiting participants and are typically tape-recorded. The researcher should begin with obtaining informed consent from the interviewee prior to starting the interview. Additionally, the researcher may write a separate field note to describe the interviewee's reactions to the interview, or events that occurred before or after the interview.

See the following for additional information about field research and qualitative research methods.

• Ethnography, Observational Research and Narrative Inquiry  (PDF)
• An Introduction to Qualitative Research  (PDF)

The content on this page was prepared by Jerry West. It was last updated March 2019.

Field work is the process of observing and collecting data about people, cultures, and natural environments

Biology, Ecology, Geography

Loading ...

Field work is the process of observing and collecting data about people, cultures , and natural environments . Field work is conducted in the wild of our everyday surroundings rather than in the semi-controlled environments of a lab or classroom. This allows researchers to collect data about the dynamic places, people, and species around them. Field work enables students and researchers to examine the way scientific theories interact with real life. Field work is important in both the social and natural sciences . Social sciences , such as economics or history , focus on people, culture, and society . Natural sciences, such as biology or chemistry , focus on physical characteristics of nature and natural environments. Social Science In anthropology , a researcher may do ethnographic field work, studying and describing the customs of different communities and cultures. Ethnographic field work dramatically changed the purpose and methods of anthropology. Early anthropologists collected ethnographic data from outside sources, usually leaders of the group they were studying, and then compared it to their theories. With this information, anthropologists tried to explain the origins of the cultures customs. By the early 20th century, however, anthropologists began to spend long periods of time in a particular community or geographic area. Rather than relying on outside sources, the anthropologists themselves recorded the activities and customs of local people. They listened to the peoples stories and participated in daily events. Anthropologists became active field workers, experiencing the everyday life of their subjects in order to explain the purpose of local institutions and cultural beliefs and practices. The National Geographic Society supports a variety of social science researchers and projects that use field work as a method of collecting data. One of National Geographics Explorers-in-Residence, Dr. Wade Davis , is an ethnobotanist . An ethnobotanist is someone who studies how different cultures understand and use plants as food , medicine , and in religious ceremonies. Davis spent more than three years in Latin America collecting and studying the plants that different indigenous groups use in their daily lives.

Field work can be conducted by groups of people as well as one individual. Participants in National Geographics Enduring Voices Project conduct field work by visiting and documenting areas of the world where indigenous languages are in danger of becoming extinct . Field workers in the Enduring Voices Project have recorded indigenous languages in places as diverse as Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, and Siberia. Davis and the Enduring Voices Project use field work to document and preserve local knowledge so we may all better understand the diversity of human experiences around the globe. Natural Science Field work is also used to understand how natural environments function. A researcher in the field of ecology , for example, may conduct field work to understand how specific organisms , such as plants and animals, relate to one another and to their physical surroundings. The work of Charles Darwin on the Galapagos Islands is an important example of field work in the natural sciences . After observing that finch populations on different islands had different types of beaks , Darwin theorized that each type of beak was adapted to the birds environment and diet . These observations, along with many others made on his voyage around South America, would lead Darwin to propose his theory of evolution by natural selection , a pillar of modern biology . A number of National Geographic-supported researchers and projects conduct field work to better understand Earths natural environments . Dr. Jenny Daltry, a National Geographic Emerging Explorer in 2005, is a herpetologist , someone who studies reptiles and amphibians . Daltry has traveled to remote regions of Cambodia and the Caribbean, observing and documenting rare species such as the Siamese crocodile and the Antiguan racer snake, known as the rarest snake in the world. She spent more than 400 nights camping on the Caribbean island of Antigua in order to understand the snakes' habitat , behavior , and predators . Daltrys field work helped establish the Antiguan Racer Conservation Project, which has successfully reintroduced the snake into the wild. A field work team from the Ocean Now project, supported by National Geographic, is studying and cataloguing information about healthy coral reef ecosystems . They are doing research in the Southern Line Islands , a remote island chain in the central Pacific Ocean. The project aims to better understand how healthy reefs function in order to help conserve reefs that have been endangered by human activity and climate change . Field work in the natural sciences , like that conducted by Daltry and the Ocean Now project, document the importance, complexity , and fragility of Earths natural environments .

Field Work, One Cubic Foot at a Time Photographer David Liittschwager crafted a 1-square-foot metal cube and placed it in a range of ecosystemsland and water, tropical and temperate, freshwater and marine. Over several weeks at each location, Liittschwager and a team of biologists found, identified, and photographed small creatures that passed through the cube. The result of their field work is an inventory of ecosystem diversity at our planet's surface and just below. The photos of these smaller, often unseen, species are showcased in the February 2010 issue of National Geographic magazine.

Media Credits

The audio, illustrations, photos, and videos are credited beneath the media asset, except for promotional images, which generally link to another page that contains the media credit. The Rights Holder for media is the person or group credited.

Illustrators

Educator reviewer, last updated.

October 19, 2023

User Permissions

For information on user permissions, please read our Terms of Service. If you have questions about how to cite anything on our website in your project or classroom presentation, please contact your teacher. They will best know the preferred format. When you reach out to them, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource.

If a media asset is downloadable, a download button appears in the corner of the media viewer. If no button appears, you cannot download or save the media.

Text on this page is printable and can be used according to our Terms of Service .

Interactives

Any interactives on this page can only be played while you are visiting our website. You cannot download interactives.

Related Resources

• Cambridge Dictionary +Plus

Meaning of field trip in English

Your browser doesn't support HTML5 audio

• break-journey
• circumnavigation

You can also find related words, phrases, and synonyms in the topics:

field trip | American Dictionary

Examples of field trip, translations of field trip.

Get a quick, free translation!

Word of the Day

a computer program designed to have a conversation with a human being, usually over the internet

Searching out and tracking down: talking about finding or discovering things

Learn more with +Plus

• Recent and Recommended {{#preferredDictionaries}} {{name}} {{/preferredDictionaries}}
• Definitions Clear explanations of natural written and spoken English English Learner’s Dictionary Essential British English Essential American English
• Grammar and thesaurus Usage explanations of natural written and spoken English Grammar Thesaurus
• Pronunciation British and American pronunciations with audio English Pronunciation
• English–Chinese (Simplified) Chinese (Simplified)–English
• English–Chinese (Traditional) Chinese (Traditional)–English
• English–Dutch Dutch–English
• English–French French–English
• English–German German–English
• English–Indonesian Indonesian–English
• English–Italian Italian–English
• English–Japanese Japanese–English
• English–Norwegian Norwegian–English
• English–Polish Polish–English
• English–Portuguese Portuguese–English
• English–Spanish Spanish–English
• English–Swedish Swedish–English
• Dictionary +Plus Word Lists
• English    Noun
• American    Noun
• Translations
• All translations

To add field trip to a word list please sign up or log in.

Add field trip to one of your lists below, or create a new one.

{{message}}

Something went wrong.

There was a problem sending your report.

• Daily Crossword
• Word Puzzle
• Word Finder
• Word of the Day
• Synonym of the Day
• Word of the Year
• Language stories
• All featured
• Gender and sexuality
• All pop culture
• Writing hub
• Grammar essentials
• Commonly confused
• All writing tips
• Pop culture
• Writing tips

Advertisement

• a trip by students to gain firsthand knowledge away from the classroom, as to a museum, factory, geological area, or environment of certain plants and animals.
• a trip by a scholar or researcher to gather data firsthand, as to a geological, archaeological, anthropological, or other site.
• an expedition, as by a group of students or research workers, to study something at first hand

Discover More

Word history and origins.

Origin of field trip 1

Example Sentences

Ali, who works with younger students in the program, recalls a field trip in which the children asked for ice cream.

They have already planned field trips to local parks and ordered biology labs.

Even a recent outing to a retail store was a thrilling field trip for the family, he says.

While I would like to think I chose the latter out of self-reflection and an aversion to the status quo, I think the decision was more about the promise of having less homework and more field trips.

He plans to use the winnings to pay off some of his student loans and help pay for supplies and field trips for his students.

“The highlight was a school field trip that came specially to see Bach in the Subways who were perfectly behaved,” he says.

Standing in the dark, I felt lost, like the time I wandered off by myself on a second-grade field trip to the history museum.

When I was in junior high, our 8th grade class took a field trip to Florida.

Not to be missed: Chris Farley as the angry bus driver taking the kids on a field trip.

Shandee, a student on a geology field trip, finds a disembodied—but talkative—arm in a quarry.

On a field trip he had undertaken as a student, the young engineer inadvertently stumbled across a treasure in manganese.

Field trip planned to show that insects feed upon plants; make their homes upon plants.

If possible let the children take a field trip in connection with these lessons.

Other modifications of these forms may easily be found on any field trip.

At least one field trip must be planned for the month of May.

What Is The Field Visit

The field visit or field trip is an educational procedure by which each student gain or learn information by observing the objects, places, natural events and other real-life information. the main objective of the field visit is to reinforce experiential and contextual learning. explore more such questions and answers at byju’s..

Improving Democracy Assistance: Building Knowledge Through Evaluations and Research (2008)

Chapter: appendix e: field visit summary report.

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

E Field Visit Summary Report Overview of National Academies’ Mission and Tasks The field visits were part of a larger project conducted by the National Academies (NA) for the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the purpose of which was to develop an overall research and analytic design that will lead to specific findings and recommendations for the Strategic and Operational Research Agenda (SORA) of the democracy and governance (DG) programs. These findings and recommendations were developed through the vetting of a variety of methodologies for assessing and evaluating democracy assistance programs. Objectives of Field Visits In support of these overall project objectives, the field visits were intended to serve two major purposes: 1. The collection of information for the NA committee to inform its recommendations, in particular to increase members’ understanding of: • how USAID programs are developed and implemented in the field as background for its recommendations to improve program evalu- ation and understanding of program successes and failures, • what data, evidence, and other resources are primarily or   Some of the material in this Appendix also appears in Chapters 6 and 7. 289 

290 APPENDIX E uniquely available in the mission or in country to support improved pro- gram evaluation, • the perspectives of mission personnel and USAID implement- ers regarding the feasibility of potential options for improving program evaluation; 2. to provide an opportunity to explore a “proof of concept” of the committee’s preliminary recommendations, in particular the feasibility of introducing more rigorous approaches to program evaluation. Selection of Field Visit Sites Three countries were selected as the sites of the field visits conducted by teams of consultants and staff: Albania, Peru, and Uganda. In particu- lar, the selection was based primarily on the stage of program develop- ment within a country’s DG portfolio, the breadth of USAID program- ming, and the depth of USAID programming (as determined by long-term funding in multiple program areas of interest; see “Current and Recent USAID Projecst at the Time of Field Visits” at the end of this appendix for a list of the major DG projects in each country). In each country selected, the DG staff were at the stage of developing new projects, offering an optimal opportunity to explore options for program design that may be more or less suited for various research methodologies. The NA field team members (see “Consultant Biographies” at the end of this appen- dix) were thus able to understand a variety of projects at the stage of their inception, the point at which new methodologies would be most effectively designed to maximize confidence about the impact of projects and under what conditions. These considerations guided the selection of cases across geographically and politically distinct regions of the world (Central Europe/Post-Communist, Latin America/Post-Military Rule, Africa/Post-Conflict). While there is no single point at which DG programs can be most effectively designed, implemented, or evaluated, the initial stages of development and design provide the most fruitful points at which inno- vative yet feasible options may be considered. Each field team therefore selected one or more projects and worked closely with USAID Mission DG officers, project implementers, and local partners through a series of in-depth conversations to understand the various opportunities and chal- lenges presented by newly proposed program designs, data collection, and more rigorous evaluation techniques. A fuller discussion of these proposed program designs in each country visited follows. 

APPENDIX E 291 KEY OBSERVATIONS AND FINDINGS FROM FIELD VISITS There are ample opportunities for improving the methodology of program monitoring and evaluation within the DG sector. This is in large part due to the well-developed existing USAID evaluation procedures. To maximize these opportunities, various approaches to evaluation must be selected based on program goals and program designs. This should involve the provision of assistance (e.g., visits by specialists in program monitoring and evaluation (M&E) from USAID/Washington to missions during the project conceptualization stage as well as subsequent stages of M&E development. Improvements in program evaluation need not be expensive. Maxi- mizing existing mechanisms (surveys and other data collection systems) and strategically targeting sample populations and control groups can result in more robust findings at a cost savings overall. By improving program evaluation, the impact of USAID programs can be more accurately assessed and documented. Creating knowledge of program impacts through rigorous evaluation is the best way to identify and take advantage of lessons learned. Institutional knowledge gained through these experiences should be shared within and beyond the mission to affect learning on a broader, agency-wide basis. Building on Current Tools and Approaches Several current practices of mission staff demonstrate the necessary willingness to maximize reasonable opportunities for learning and pro- vide the basis for more solid inferences over time. Currently, as a part of ongoing DG programs, mission staff collect regular and systematic information about those who receive training through USAID-funded programs. This approach to data collection should be encouraged and expanded to complement other more rigorous methodologies described below. Similarly, implementers working with USAID have developed elabo- rate mechanisms for quarterly data collections pertinent to their programs. To maximize the potential represented by these mechanisms, data col- lected should be directed toward understanding outcomes and impacts over outputs. Similarly, mechanisms created by local implementers should be strategically collected and analyzed to maximize cost benefits and   This text is drawn from memos prepared for the committee by three of its field consul- tants—Thad Dunning, Yale University (Peru); Devra Cohen Moehler, Cornell University (Uganda); and Dan Posner, University of California at Los Angeles (Albania)—and reflects their judgments and assessments. 

292 APPENDIX E efficiencies. For example, collecting local government data in the form of smaller, cost-effective samples from municipalities would be beneficial. Furthermore, this information should be fully transferable to USAID for learning purposes. Most important, these mechanisms should be consis- tent with key program design elements requiring consideration at the initial stages of program development. Measurement of Outcome Indicators Indicators gathered in connection with past programs tend to be mea- sures of “outputs” or very proximate outcomes. Examples of these out- put indicators include, in the context of a decentralization program, the number of relevant municipal officials trained by the implementer or the percent of target municipalities who agree to an assistance plan. Although these output measures may be useful and necessary for monitoring the performance of local implementers or to assess short-term progress on the process of implementing a program, they are less helpful for measuring the outcomes that the programs hope to promote. To improve assessment of the impact of USAID programs on ultimate objectives, it is important to gather data to the extent possible on outcome variables. One example gathered in connection with the decentralization program was the per- centage of local citizens who rate the quality of local government services as “good” or “very good.” Controls Most program evaluations involve indicators gathered only or mostly on “treated” units (those groups, individuals, or organizations who were assisted by USAID). Sometimes this is unavoidable, as when a program works with only one unit or actor (e.g., the Congress). At other times, however, it is possible to find comparison units that would be useful for assessing the impact of U.S. interventions. Using control groups is invaluable for attributing impact to a USAID program. For example, without a control group it is impossible to know if the change in local party development is a result of a USAID intervention or another factor such as change in national party law, economic growth, or better media coverage. Gathering outcome measurements on control units need not be pro- hibitively costly. The cost of modifying the 2003 and 2005 national surveys in Peru conducted by the Latin American Public Opinion Project (LAPOP) to include a sample of residents in control group municipalities would likely have run around $15,000 per survey, a small investment when com- pared to the $20 million cost of the program over five years. 

APPENDIX E 293 Opportunities for Randomization Comparisons across units or groups with which USAID partners worked and those with which they did not are only partially informative about the impact of USAID interventions. For example, differences across these groups could reflect preexisting differences and unobserved con- founders, rather than the impact of the intervention. Similarly, selection bias could account for the variation in performance between the treatment and control groups. One of the ways that social scientists sometimes approach this diffi- culty is through random assignment of units to treatment. In the context of decentralization, for example, the municipalities with which USAID implementers work could be determined by lottery. Subsequent differ- ences between treated and untreated municipalities are likely to be due to the intervention, since other factors will be roughly balanced across the two groups of municipalities. Randomization is not feasible for many kinds of programs, and there can be a range of practical obstacles; yet these are also often surmount- able. In addition, experimental designs need not be expensive; additional costs can be offset by savings introduced by appropriate designs. SAMPLE PROPOSED PROGRAM EVALUATION DESIGNS FROM THREE FIELD VISITS Selected Designs from Albania: Rule of Law Programs A major part of USAID’s DG-related activities in Albania involved increasing the effectiveness and fairness of legal sector institutions. With one possible exception, none of these rule of law activities are amenable to randomized evaluation. This is because they each deal with either (a) technical assistance to a single unit (e.g., the Inspectorate of the High Council of Justice, the Inspectorate of the Ministry of Justice, the High Inspectorate for the Declaration and Audit of Assets, the Citizen’s Advo- cacy Office, and the National Chamber of Advocates), (b) support for the preparation of a particular piece of legislation (e.g., the Freedom of Information Act and Administrative Procedures Code, a new conflict of interest law, and a new press law), or (c) support for a single activity, such as the implementation of an annual corruption survey. For a randomized evaluation of the efficacy of these activities to be possible they would have to be, in principle, implementable across a large number of units,   addition to this group of selected projects discussed here, several others were analyzed In by the field teams. 

294 APPENDIX E which these are not. There is only one Inspectorate of the High Council of Justice, only one conflict of interest law being prepared, and only one National Chamber of Advocates being supported, so it is not possible to compare the impact of support for these activities both where they are and are not being supported, and certainly not across multiple units. The best—indeed, only—way to evaluate the success of these activities is to identify the outcomes they are designed to affect, measure these outcomes both before and after the activities have been undertaken, and compare these measures. The trick, however, is to find appropriate measures of the outcomes that the activities are designed to affect, and this is frequently far from straightforward. For example, the goal of the technical assistance to the Inspectorates of the High Council of Justice and the Ministry of Justice is to improve the transparency and accountability of the judiciary and to increase public confidence in judicial integrity. The latter can be measured fairly easily using public opinion polls that probe respondents’ trust in the judiciary and perceptions of its integrity (these would be administered before and after the period during which technical assistance was offered, and the results of the polls compared). However, measuring the degree to which the judiciary is transparent and accountable is much more difficult. Part of the problem stems from the fact that transparency and account- ability can only be ascertained vis-à-vis an (unknown) set of activities that should be brought to light and an (unknown) level of malfeasance that needs to be addressed. For example, suppose that, following the implementation of the programs designed to support the Inspectorate of the High Council of Justice, we observe that three judges are brought up on charges of corruption. Should this be taken as a sign that the activi- ties worked in generating greater accountability? Compared to a baseline of no prosecutions, the answer is probably yes, to at least some degree. But knowing just how effective the activities were depends on whether there were just three corrupt judges who should have been prosecuted or whether there were, in fact, twenty, in which case prosecuting the three only scratched the surface of the problem, or whether the prosecutions might be selective with the targets chosen for political reasons. Parallel problems affect other rule of law initiatives, such as efforts to improve the ability of lawyers to police themselves. A slightly different evaluation problem arises with respect to the activi- ties designed to support the drafting of various pieces of legislation. One fairly straightforward measure of success in this area is simply whether or not the law was actually drafted, and, if so, whether it included language that will demonstrably strengthen the rule of law. But assessing whether or not USAID’s support had any impact requires weighing the counterfactual question: Would the legislation have been drafted without USAID’s support 

APPENDIX E 295 and what would it have looked like? If the answers to these questions are that the legislation would not have been drafted or that the language in the resulting law would not have been optimal, then we can judge the support from USAID to have been successful to the extent that the result we observe is better than this counter factual outcome. The broader problem, however, is that achieving the overarching strategic objective of strengthening the rule of law will involve more than just getting legislation drafted but also getting it passed and then having it enforced. The point is that the measur- able outcome of the USAID-sponsored activity is several steps removed from the true goals of the intervention, and any assessment of “success” in these areas must be interpreted in this light. This is equally true with respect to other activities, such as technical assistance to aid the Albanian govern- ment in the establishment of a copyright office or an office of patents and trademarks. Whether these institutions, once created, will have any impact on protecting intellectual property will depend on much more than whether or not a formal office designed to do so has been established. The larger point that this discussion hints at is that many of the activi- ties in the rule of law area involve the creation of laws or the strength- ening of institutions whose existence is a prerequisite for a legal system that works, and that supports democracy and market reform. Whether or not these laws and institutions actually have a positive impact on these outcomes can only be ascertained after they have been created or made sufficiently strong to work properly. In this context, evaluating the efficacy of the resources spent on such activities may not make much sense, since the impact will only be meaningful after this initial, neces- sary foundation-building stage. Supporting the writing of laws and the setting up of institutions such as inspectorates, citizens’ advocacy offices, and attorneys’ associations may simply be necessary investments, even if it is very difficult to know whether or not they have had, or will have, an impact on the ultimate outcomes that USAID wants to affect. The one activity area within rule of law that might be amenable to randomized evaluation, at least in principle, is the support for rule of law–oriented nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The problem here is that the preferred method of selecting NGOs for support is through a small grants competition, whereas a truly rigorous evaluation of the impact of support would require randomly choosing NGOs for funding. One possible solution would be to hold a small grants competition and, having ranked the applications from best to worst, work down the list funding every other one. Then, data would need to be collected on the quality of the performance and/or the impact in its area of focus of every NGO on the list—both those that were funded and those that were not— and a comparison could then be made across those groups. The problem, again, however, is to figure out what, precisely, to measure (which will 

296 APPENDIX E depend, in any case, on the particular goals that the NGO sets for itself). Also, unless the small-grants competition generates a very large number of high-quality applications, this method is not likely to generate very useful results. The need for a large number of funded and nonfunded NGOs will be increased by the likelihood that NGOs will propose dif- ferent sets of activities, so “success” will have two possible sources—the difficulty of the tasks that the NGO sets out to accomplish and the benefits of having received the small grant—and the sample of NGOs analyzed will need to be large enough to permit the impact of funding through the “noise” of the random variation in task difficulty. Selected Designs from Peru: Decentralization, Rule of Law, and Political Parties Decentralization USAID/Peru launched a program in 2002 to support national decen- tralization policies initiated by the Peruvian government. Over a five-year period, the Pro-Decentralization (PRODES) program was intended to • support the implementation of mechanisms for citizen participation with subnational governments (such as “participatory budgeting”); • strengthen the management skills of subnational governments in selected regions of Peru; and • increase the capacity of nongovernmental organizations in these same regions to interact with their local government. With the exception of some activities relating to national-level poli- cies, all interventions under the program took place in seven selected sub- national regions (also called departments): Ayacucho, Cusco, Huanuco, Junin, Pasco, San Martin, and Ucayali. These seven regions contain 61 provinces, which in turn contain 536 districts. Workshops on participatory budgeting, training of civil-society orga-   As discussed elsewhere, the regions were nonrandomly selected for programs because they share high poverty rates, significant indigenous populations, narcotics-related activi- ties, and because a number of the departments were strongholds for the Shining Path move- ment in the 1980s.   Peru has 24 departments plus one “constitutional province”; the 24 departments in turn comprise 194 provinces and 1,832 districts. Provinces and districts are often both called “municipalities” in Peru and both have mayors. Sometimes two or more districts combine to form a city, however. 

APPENDIX E 297 nizations, and other interventions took place at the regional, provincial, and district levels. The ultimate goal of the program was to promote “increased respon- siveness of sub-national elected governments to citizens at the local level in selected regions.” This outcome is potentially measurable on different units of observation. For example, government capacity and responsive- ness could be measured at the district or provincial level (through expert appraisals or other means), while citizens’ perceptions of government responsiveness may be measured at the individual level (through sur- veys). Experimental designs could be used to study the impact of the decentralization program, and the cost of appropriately designed experi- mental evaluations could in fact be far beneath the actual costs spent on monitoring and evaluation. Best-possible designs.  We discuss best-possible designs from the per- spective of program evaluation. First, we discuss what an ideal ex ante design for the decentralization program might have been in 2002, when the program was begun. Second, we also discuss how an experimental design might be employed in a second phase of the program, given that all the municipalities in the seven regions were already treated in the first phase. A “tabula rasa” design.  We assume that the decentralization program will be implemented in the seven nonrandomly chosen regions in which USAID commonly works; inferences about the effect of the intervention will then be made to the districts and provinces that comprise these regions. The simplest design would involve randomization of treatment at the district level. Districts in the treatment group would be invited to receive the full bundle of interventions associated with the decen- tralization program (e.g., training in participatory budgeting, assistance for civil society groups, and so on); control districts would receive no interventions. There are two disadvantages to randomizing at the district level, how- ever. One is that some of the relevant interventions in fact take place at the provincial level. Another is that district mayors and other actors may more easily become aware of treatments in neighboring districts. For both of these reasons, it may be useful to randomize instead at the provincial   Relevant subnational authorities include members of regional councils, provincial may- ors, and mayors of districts.   Some interventions also occurred at the regional level, particularly toward the end of the program, yet these interventions constitute a relatively minor part of the program. 

298 APPENDIX E level. Then, all districts in a province that were randomly selected for treatment would be invited to receive the bundle of interventions. Several different kinds of outcome measures can be gathered. Survey evidence on citizens’ perceptions of local government responsiveness will be useful; so may be evaluations of municipal governance capacity taken across all municipalities in the seven regions (both treated and untreated). A difference in average outcomes across groups at the end of the program—for example, differences in the percentage of residents who say government services are “good” or “very good,” or the percentage who say the government responds “almost always” or “on the majority of occasions” to what the people want—can then be reliably attributed to the effect of the bundle of interventions, if the difference is bigger than might reasonably arise by chance. One feature of this design that may be perceived as a disadvantage is the fact that treated municipalities are subject to a bundle of interventions; thus, if we observe a difference across treated and untreated groups, we may not know which particular intervention was responsible (or most responsible) for the difference. Did training in participatory budgeting matter most? Assistance to civil society groups? Or some other aspect of the bundle of interventions? This problem arises as well in some medical trials and other experiments involving complex treatments, where it may not be clear exactly what aspect of treatment is responsible for differences in average outcomes across treatment and control groups. It seems preferable at this stage to design an evaluation plan that would allow USAID to know with some confidence whether a program financed by USAID makes any difference. Bundling the interventions may provide the best chance to estimate a causal effect of treatment. Once this question is answered, one might then want to ask what aspect of the bundle of interventions made a difference, using further experimental designs. However, another possibility discussed below is to implement a more complex design in which different municipalities would be randomized to receive different bundles of interventions. The intention-to-treat principle can be used to analyze the results of the experiment. Some municipalities assigned to treatment may refuse to sign participation agreements or otherwise may not cooperate with the local contractor; these municipalities may be akin to noncompliers in a medical trial. In this context, estimating the “effect of treatment on the treated” may be of interest. It may be worth choosing pilot districts at random as well. In the first   Standard errors may need to be adjusted to account for the clustering of treated districts within provinces. 

APPENDIX E 299 phase of the implemented decentralization program, only 145 municipali- ties were incorporated in the program in the first year, out of 536 that were eventually incorporated. Comparing municipal capacity across incorpo- rated and unincorporated municipalities at the end of the pilot period may not lead to useful results; the incorporated municipalities were chosen for their high degree of capacity. It would be much more meaningful to randomly assign municipalities for inclusion in the pilot phase. To the extent it is necessary to include some municipalities with high ex ante management capacity and resources, this may be accomplished through stratified sampling of municipalities. Second-phase design.  USAID/Peru is preparing to roll out a second five- year phase of the decentralization program, again in the seven regions in which it typically works. At this point, all municipalities in the seven regions were already treated (or at least targeted for treatment) in the first phase. This may raise some special considerations for the second-phase design. Our understanding is that there are at least two possibilities for the actual implementation of the second phase of the program; which option is chosen will depend on the available budget and other factors. One is that all 536 municipalities are again targeted for treatment. As in the first-phase design, this would not allow the possibility to partition municipalities in the seven regions into a treatment group and controls. In this case, the best option for an experimental design may be to ran- domly assign different treatments—bundles of interventions—to differ- ent municipalities. While such an approach will not allow us to compare treated and untreated cases, it will allow us to assess the relative effects of different bundles of interventions. This may be quite useful, particularly for assessing the question raised above about which aspect of a given bundle of interventions has the most impact on outcomes. Do workshops on participatory budgeting matter more than training civil society orga- nizations (CSOs)? Randomly assigning workshops to some municipalities and training to others would allow us to find out. A second possibility for the second phase of the program is to reduce the number of municipalities treated, for budgetary reasons. Suppose the number of municipalities were to be reduced by half. The best option in this case is probably to randomize the control municipalities out of treat- ment, leaving half assigned to treatment and the other half in control. Those municipalities assigned to treatment would be offered the full menu of interventions in the decentralization program. Of course, randomizing some municipalities out of treatment is sure to encounter displeasure among authorities in control municipalities. Yet if the budget only allows for 268 municipalities assigned to treatment and 268 to control, this displeasure will arise whether or not the allocation of 

300 APPENDIX E continued treatment is randomized. In fact, as discussed below, it may be that using a lottery to determine which municipalities are invited to stay in the program is perceived as the fairest method of allocating scarce resources. Cost of evaluation under the best-possible designs.  The need to gather outcome measures on control units—both through surveys of residents in untreated municipalities and through independent evaluations of munici- pal capacity in control districts—will mean an additional cost of program evaluation. However, it is worth bearing in mind that such additional costs would have likely represented only a small fraction of the cost of the overall program as well as of the portion of overall costs going to evaluation. For example, adding 500 respondents from appropriately chosen control municipalities would likely cost no more than $10,000, a small amount compared to the overall program budget. In addition, with appropriate design modifications, there might be substantial net savings. One possibility for cost savings would involve substantially limiting the volume of output/outcome indicators gath- ered by each of the local subcontractors. For example, measures could be sampled across local jurisdictions, rather than gathered quarterly on each of 536 municipalities. A related idea is that local subcontractors could be asked to gather the indicators and report on them each quarter with some positive probability; but they would not actually have to do so in each quarter. Other Examples: Rule of Law, Political Parties, and Extractive Industries Several of the programs planned under the new Peru strategic assess- ment might also be amenable to randomized designs. In this section, we briefly review possibilities for experimental designs afforded by programs related to the rule of law, political parties, and extractive industries. Rule of law.  Most of the interventions under the rule of law programs implemented were not amenable to randomization across units. However, there were one or two interventions that could in principle have been ran- domized. For example, after the passage of a new penal code, some judges in district courts were switched to the new system of judging cases while others were left to clear the backlog of cases that had already entered the courts under the old system. Under the observational (nonexperimental) evaluation plan that was actually adopted, cases administered by judges   For reasons discussed above, it may also be useful to conduct the randomization at the provincial rather than district level. 

APPENDIX E 301 under the new system were compared to cases administered under the old system. Comparisons were made across groups with respect to vari- ables such as the average time to disposition of the court cases. This nonexperimental design represented a valuable evaluation plan: There was a comparison made across treated and untreated units on an outcome measure of interest. In this and similar examples, the data seemed to show a substantial effect of treatment. However, judges were nonrandomly assigned to stay in the old sys- tem or migrate to the new one (the chief judge apparently decided who would move). This raises the possibility that characteristics of judges who stayed or migrated are partially or wholly responsible for differences in the average time to disposition.10 In principle, it would have been pos- sible to assign district court judges to the old and new systems at random. While the research design idea is straightforward, however, it was likely to be politically difficult: Chief judges may not want to relinquish power over these assignments. Political parties.  One idea under the new political parties program is to provide assistance to the major national-level parties in opening or strengthening local offices in selected municipalities. At this point, how- ever, the parties themselves would choose where to open offices, so the design is nonexperimental. Moreover, if outcomes are not tracked in municipalities in which USAID partners do not support local party offices (i.e., controls), infer- ences may be especially misleading. Suppose measures are taken today and in five years of local party strengthening and an increase is found. Is this due to the effect of local-party-strengthening activities supported by USAID? Perhaps. Yet it could be due to some other factor, like a change from an electoral system with preferential voting to closed party lists, which would tend to strengthen party discipline and, perhaps, local par- ties; such a change is currently being considered in Peru.11 The point is 10  While data were not available, it would have been helpful to compare the difference in time to resolution, before and after the switch of systems, among judges who switched and judges who did not; this could have required pre- and postswitch data on both groups of judges. While still nonexperimental, this comparison would lend greater confidence to the claim that the switch in systems had a causal effect on the time to resolution of court cases. 11  In the current electoral system, there is proportional representation at the department level, and voters vote for party lists but can indicate which candidate on the list they prefer; according to a range of research on the topic, this can create incentives for candidates to cultivate personal reputations and also makes the party label less important to candidates. Under a closed-list system, voters simply vote for the party ticket, and party leaders may decide the order of candidates on the list. This may tend to increase party discipline and cohesion (as well as the internal power of party elites). 

302 APPENDIX E that without data on controls, it will be impossible to separate the effect of USAID local activities from the effect of the law. At a minimum, then, it would be advisable to consider gathering data on control municipalities. In addition, while an experimental approach may not be deemed feasible in this instance, it is possible in principle, and it would provide a stronger basis for impact attribution than a non- experimental approach. Under an experimental design, USAID or the local implementer would select municipalities in which to establish or strengthen local par- ties randomly, from a set of acceptable municipalities. Local parties would have to accept that USAID or the contractor would select the munici- palities. There may be ways to overcome any resistance to such a plan, however; for instance, a party such as Unidad Nacional (the rightist party whose candidate in the 2001 and 2006 presidential elections was Lourdes Flores Nano) has almost no base outside Lima and might accept any help it can get to broaden that base. Another obstacle is that parties may want to target certain kinds of municipalities, for example, those where they already have some support. It may be helpful for this purpose to stratify municipalities—for example, by past levels of electoral support for each party—and conduct the randomization within strata. Outcome indicators might include the municipal vote share of each party in subsequent elections, with comparisons being made across treated and untreated municipalities; there may be other, harder-to-measure out- comes of interest, too. Inferences may be complicated if more than one party opens or strengthens an office in the same municipality (i.e., if there are two parties and both are strengthened locally, party vote shares may be unchanged). This concern may be lessened by the fragmentation of the party system and by the current local dominance of regional parties. In recent regional elections, for example, 23 different regional parties won office across Peru’s 24 departments; these regional parties differ from the national par- ties whose local roots USAID seeks to strengthen. Extractive industries.  There is currently a very small pilot program that seeks to promote dialogue in two mining communities among the State, companies, and local citizens, with the larger goal of “decreasing the probability of social conflict.” This program has the advantage of possessing a relatively easy- to-measure outcome variable, social conflict (compared to, say, trans- parency). For example, this variable might conceivably be proxied by the annual number of local marches/demonstrations. However, without comparing mining communities with which USAID works to those with which it does not, it will be difficult to evaluate the causal impact of the program on decreasing the probability of social conflict. 

APPENDIX E 303 In a future rollout of the program, mining communities with which USAID might work could be randomly selected from the set of eligible mining communities. This would provide the most secure basis for attach- ing a causal interpretation to a finding that, for example, there were fewer marches and demonstrations in communities in which USAID worked than in those in which it did not work. Selected Designs from Uganda: Civil Society, Parliamentary Strengthening, and Anticorruption Large and Small Grants to CSOs In the proposed project for Strengthening Democratic Linkages in Uganda Program, USAID proposes to provide at least $100,000 per year for grants to CSOs to enable them to monitor local governments and help improve representation and service delivery at the local level. 12 These grants are thought to have two main effects: (1) to develop a more robust civil society by increasing the capacity of the CSOs who are awarded the grants, and (2) to improve the performance of government service deliv- ery by increasing civic input and oversight of government officials. Across carefully matched subcounties, large grants, small grants, and no grants will be allocated randomly to local CSOs working on HIV/ AIDS. The goal is to compare the effects of large grants to CSOs (treatment group) versus small grants to CSOs (partial control group) in order to determine the effects of increases in CSO funding. Providing small grants to the partial control group allows USAID to assess independently the effect of greater monetary resources, while controlling for the nonmone- tary effects of receiving a USAID grant (such as public recognition, special accounting requirements, and outside monitoring). It also facilitates the collection of equivalent data from CSOs in both the treatment and partial control groups. Both the treatment group and the partial control group will also be compared to CSOs in matching sub-counties where no grants are awarded (full control group) to evaluate the total effect of awarding a grant. Carefully matched groups of three subcounties will be purposively selected so that the subcounties within each group are similar along a number of dimensions that are measurable and likely to be associated with CSO capacity and government service delivery for HIV/AIDS pro- grams. Selection criteria might include the type, size, budget, and experi- ence of the HIV/AIDS-related CSOs already working in the subcounties, as well as the subcounties’ size, urban population, wealth, voting pat- 12  The Strengthening Multi-Party Democracy in Uganda program also provides for $100,000 per year for grants to CSOs, although for a somewhat different purpose. 

304 APPENDIX E terns, background of key officials, location, ethnic composition, number and type of health facilities, and infection rates. The most important cri- teria to ensure comparability should be determined in consultations with experts. Grouped subcounties might be next to each other but immediate proximity is not necessary (or even desirable).13 In each subcounty, one CSO working in HIV/AIDS will be selected with the aim of finding similar CSOs across three subcounties in the group. One subcounty in each group will be randomly assigned to receive a large CSO grant to monitor HIV/AIDS services in the subcounty. Another subcounty in the group will be randomly selected to receive a small CSO grant for HIV/AIDS. The remaining sub-county in the group will act as the pure control and receive no grant. This will be repeated for at least 50 groups, and preferably more.14 It is important to ensure that: (1) the large grant provides a significant increase to the existing budget of the CSOs, and that the small grants do not and (2) that the CSOs spend their grants entirely on HIV/AIDS activities within the selected subcounty and that there is not contamination (sharing of resources or expertise) across sub- counties. It would probably work best to select CSOs that work only in a single subcounty to prevent the supplementing or siphoning off of funds to the treatment sites due to the grant. CSOs in both treatment and partial control groups should receive equivalent technical assistance and training on how to use the grant money and how to monitor and improve service delivery. USAID interactions with the CSOs in the treatment group, and partial control group should be equivalent throughout. Evaluation.  The primary question for evaluation purposes is: What are the effects of monetary grants on the organizational capacity of CSOs and on the ability of CSOs to monitor and improve government service delivery? The best possible evaluation for this type of project would be a large N randomized controlled field experiment. Because a large N study would require sizeable grants to at least 50 CSOs and additional monitor- ing and measurement, the costs are greater than that which is currently envisioned for CSO grants within the Linkages program. However, this design offers substantial benefits over a small N experiment and is of general interest to USAID. 13 Instead of grouping subcounties in sets of three, it might be more feasibly to use an alter- native stratified sampling procedure whereby all the subcounties in the sample are stratified into types according to key factors and then subcounties within each stratum are randomly assigned into each of the three categories. 14 Depending on the districts chosen for Linkages, it may be possible to randomly select all the treatment and control subcounties from within the 10 districts. 

APPENDIX E 305 Measurement.  Data should be collected before the grants are awarded, after the money is given (or at several points during the grant period), and two years after the end of the grant in order to assess both short- term and medium-term effects of the monetary infusion. Equivalent data should be collected about CSOs and service delivery in the treatment, partial-control, and full-control subcounties. The ability of USAID to col- lect comparable data in the partial control group should be facilitated by the fact that the CSOs are receiving some funds from USAID. USAID may have to provide a small fee or incentive to the CSOs not receiving grants to enable the collection of similar intrusive and time-consuming data from the CSOs in the pure control group. In order to study the effect of grants and increased resources on the organizational capacity of the CSOs, data should be collected on the bud- get, activities, operations, and planning of the CSOs. In addition, pre- and postintervention surveys can be conducted with CSO employees, volun- teers, government officials and employees, and stakeholders to evaluate changes in the activities, effectiveness, and reputation of the CSOs. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of grants’ government service delivery data can be collected on HIV/AIDS services and outcomes within each subcounty. Much of these data may already be collected by the government (such as the periodic National Service Delivery Survey conducted by the Uganda Bureau of Statustics (UBOS)—though perhaps USAID would need to fund an oversampling in treatment and control subcounties) or perhaps it can be collected in collaboration with other donor projects such as the President’s Emergy Plan for AIDS Relief. Special attention should be given during the research design stage to determine the government activities that are likely to be affected by greater CSO involvement and how those activities might be accurately measured. Additional data collection could be done through surveys of service recipients or randomized checks on facilities and services. In addi- tion, money-tracking studies of local government and government agen- cies could be conducted to evaluate the level of corruption in HIV/AIDS projects within the selected subcounties. Possible alternatives 1. The grants could be given for an issue other than HIV/AIDS. Selected issues must be ones where (a) the government plays a major role in providing services and (b) there are measurable outcomes of service delivery. 2. The intervention can be carried out at either the district level or the village level instead of at the middle subcounty level. At higher levels of local government, CSOs are denser and better organized. While the ability 

306 APPENDIX E of CSOs to effect change in government may be greater at higher levels, the size of the grant needed to make a detectable difference will also be larger. Furthermore, it may be too difficult to find similar groups, and to protect units from contamination by other donors at higher levels of government. 3. If additional funds cannot be secured to conduct a large N random- ized controlled experiment, a small N experiment could be conducted with the available funds, although with significantly less power to accu- rately evaluate the effects of CSO grants. In order to increase the number of possible comparisons, and to help control for the effect of context with a small number of treatment sites, a variation on the above design may be warranted. The inclusion of a second issue area may facilitate analysis in a small N context. For example, in each subcounty, one CSO working on education and one working on HIV/AIDS will be selected with the aim of finding similar CSOs across subcounty groups and issues. One subcounty will be randomly assigned to receive a large education grant and a small HIV/AIDS grant, and another subcounty will receive a large HIV/AIDS grant and a small education grant. Figure E-1 provides an illustration. E=Large education grant e=Small education grant A=Large HIV/AIDS grant a=Small HIV/Aids grant 3b 1a 1b e A E a e A 3a 2c 1c 3c E a 2a E a 2b 4c e A 4b 5c e A 4a 5b 5a E a e A E a FIGURE E-1  Comparison of large and small grants to education and HIV/AIDS CSOs. E-1.eps 

APPENDIX E 307 This research design affords several useful comparisons. Within a sin- gle subcounty, changes in the education CSO versus the HIV/AIDS CSO (one of which got a large grant and the other of which got a small grant) can be compared, and the degree of change in each sector can be evalu- ated. Within each subcounty group, the education CSOs (one with a large grant, one with a small grant, and one with no grant) can be compared and the changes in educational outcomes across the grouped subcoun- ties can be compared. In addition, within each subcounty group, the two HIV/AIDS CSOs (one with a large grant, one with a small grant, and one with no grant) can be compared and the changes in HIV/AIDS outcomes across the grouped subcounties can be compared. The repetition of these comparisons across a number of different groups will help the researchers to parse out the effects of the grants from contextual factors. Training and Assistance for a Random Selection of New Members of Parliament The Strengthening Democratic Linkages in Uganda program seeks to enhance the knowledge, expertise, and resources of members of parlia- ment (MPs) so they can more effectively operate in a multiparty parlia- ment, legislate and perform oversight functions, foster sustainable devel- opment, and engage constituents, civil society, and local governments. The entire group of new MPs (approximately 150) will be randomly divided into two groups. USAID can explain that they only have enough resources to work with half the group at a time and that the fairest way to decide is by lottery. To ensure that the partisan makeup of the treated group is equivalent to the control group, USAID will probably want to stratify by party affiliation. They may also want to stratify by other key factors such as previous political experience, committee assignment, and gender and randomly assign MPs within strata to ensure that the treat- ment and control groups are equivalent along critical dimensions. The treatment group will receive intensive personalized training and assistance from technical personnel. This assistance my take the form of group trainings on key issues, weekly or bi-monthly individual meetings with trained legal assistants, regular research assistance on topics chosen by the MP, secretarial services, and/or repeated meetings with CSO rep- resentatives. The control group will not receive these additional services (at least initially). It is important to ensure that the intervention (1) is deemed useful by the MPs so that they continue to participate fully in the program for its duration; (2) is significant enough that the effects, if there are any, can be measured; and (3) is limited to the MPs in the treatment group alone and not easily passed on to those in the control group. For example, if the treatment was the distribution of a newsletter each week 

308 APPENDIX E to the treatment group, then it is very likely that many legislators in the control group would gain access to the newsletter and receive the same treatment as those in the treatment group. Measurement.  Jeremy Weinstein and Macartan Humphreys, in coop- eration with the African Leadership Initiative, are currently producing annual scorecards for all of Uganda’s MPs recording their behavior in the parliament, in committee, and in their constituencies. These scorecards could be used to compare the behavior of MPs in the treatment and con- trol groups. In addition, surveys could be conducted with MPs to measure the knowledge and reported behavior of new MPs and to assess percep- tions of fellow MPs. Surveys could also be conducted with parliamentary staff, civil service leaders, key stakeholders, or constituents to assess the reputation and influence of different legislators. Perhaps other measures of MP involvement (such as visits to the library) can be collected. Even- tually, for those who run for reelection, the vote results could be used to evaluate popularity. Evaluation.  For the purposes of evaluation, the most important question is: What are the effects of technical training and assistance on the ability of individual legislators to operate more actively, effectively, and inde- pendently in parliament? Possible alternatives 1. To reduce costs of the intervention, a smaller number of MPs can be selected to be in the treatment group. The required number depends on the intensity of the intervention, the quality of the measures, and the heterogeneity of the group, but a treatment group of 50 MPs may be sufficient. 2. If it is not politically feasible to provide benefits to only some of the new MPs, then the treatment could be conducted in a rollout fashion. Half (or one-third) of the MPs would receive the treatment for the first several years, and the other group would receive the treatment in the later part of the term. The interventions with each group would have to be timed to fit with the collection of data for the scorecards. 3. Returning MPs could also be included in the experiment, although returning MPs are more experienced and thus less likely to be affected by additional assistance. Their inclusion also adds to the heterogeneity of the population. The intervention activities (and the associated costs) would have to be greater, and/or more widespread, in order to discern an effect. 

APPENDIX E 309 Revised Remuneration Policies to Fight Corruption The Strengthening Capacity to Fight Corruption in Uganda Program suggests that “the Government of Uganda will consider increased pay for key personnel, through the implementation of an enhanced remuneration package for anti-corruption investigators and prosecutors.” The revised remuneration policies would “enable performance (job evaluation) based salary structures for anti-corruption prosecutors, investigators, and other officers within GOU entities such as the DEI, DPP and the CID fraud squad.” The effects of changes in remuneration policies are of general inter- est to USAID. Although the implementation of the program cannot be manipulated to create contemporaneous control or comparison groups, the effects can still be evaluated effectively with a temporal compari- son—before and after the intervention. The main consideration is to try to ensure that exogenous shocks do not take place during the period of measurement. For that reason we suggest that such an intervention could only be accurately evaluated if it took place some time before the other proposed reforms in the Request for Proposal for Strengthening Capac- ity to Fight Corruption in Uganda. Perhaps the changes in remuneration could be implemented immediately, while the other interventions are still in the planning stage. Measurement.  The main comparison is before the change in remuneration policies versus after the change. To evaluate the effect of changes in remu- neration policies on recruitment and retention, the qualifications of the current employees will be assessed. In addition, the qualifications of all those who apply and former employees who sought alternative employ- ment should also be assessed. To evaluate the effect of the remuneration policies changes on the effectiveness of anticorruption activities, the num- ber of malpractices that are detected, effectively investigated, prosecuted, punished, and publicized before and after the changes can be compared. Evaluation.  The primary question from the perspective of evaluation is: How do changes in remuneration policies affect recruitment and retention of qualified personnel and the performance of employees? Possible alternatives.  If time permits, it would be better to stagger the changes in remuneration policies by types of civil servants or grades. For example, prosecutors could receive the new remuneration packages sev- eral months before the investigators. Thus, if there is an external shock, it is less likely to similarly affect the outcomes of every subject of the study. 

310 APPENDIX E Current and Recent USAID Projects at the Time of Field Visits Albania (March 2007) New Local Government—RFP issued Current/Recently Ended Local Government (2004–end July 2007)—Urban Institute Rule of Law (2004–end July 2007)—Casals Political Parties and Civic Participation (2004–September 2007)—NDI/ IREX/Partners Albania Anti-Corruption/MCC Threshold (2006-2008)—Chemonics Peru (June 2007) Current Pro Decentralization (PRODES)—ARD, Inc. Political parties/Elections—NDI/Transparencia Congress Program—United Nations Developoment Program and George Washington University LAPOP Survey “Democracy Political Culture in Peru, 2006”—Vander- bilt University Not Included in Field Visit Conflict Mitigation in Mining—CARE Human Rights National Coordinator Institutional Development and Therapy Attention to Victims of Torture and Political Violence— Human Rights National Coordinator and Center for Psycho-Social Attention Trafficking in Persons—Capital Humano y Social Alternativo Uganda (June 2007) New Democratic Linkages (within and among parliament, selected local gov- ernments, and CSOs)—Center for Legislative Development SUNY Albany MCC Threshold (anti-corruption and civil society to improve procure- ment systems and build capacity to more effectively investigate and prosecute corruption cases) Political parties and politically active CSOs (capacity building)—design- ing project 

APPENDIX E 311 Recent/Soon to End Decentralization (to end December 2007)—ARD Not Included in Field Visit Community Resilience and Dialogue (September 2002–September 2007)—International Rescue Committee Consultant Biographies Albania Team Members: David Black, USAID; Rita Guenther, National Acad- emies; Jo Husbands, National Academies; Karen Otto, consultant; Daniel Posner, consultant. Karen Otto, a former USAID direct hire, is a monitoring and evalua- tion specialist/consultant with a strong background in democracy and governance (especially rule of law). She has developed 70 performance monitoring plans for proposals and ongoing development projects in a wide array of areas, particularly DG. She has evaluated the performance of many development projects and the operations of all federal courts in the United States, and has developed a formal evaluation system for the Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts to review courts under its jurisdiction. Ms. Otto has been a court administrator in federal, state, and municipal courts in the United States. She has been a rule of law advisor in USAID and a project manager for DG projects overseas. She has personal experience in many of the areas involved in DG activities: court administration (she was a court administrator), media (she was a journalist), judicial disciplinary system (she was an inspector in a judicial inspection service), etc. Daniel Posner, associate professor of political science at the University of California, Los Angeles, conducts research in the following four broad areas: ethnic politics, ethnicity and economic development, political change in Africa, and social capital and civil society. His research in this area is motivated by a number of questions: When and why do some ethnic identities (and ethnic cleavages) matter for politics, and when do they not? Why, when people think about who they are, do they see them- selves (and others) as members of particular ethnic groups, and why do the groups that they see themselves as part of have the sizes and physical locations that they do? How can we reconcile what we know about the fluidity and context dependence of ethnic identities and ethnic cleavages with the need to measure social diversity and code individuals by their 

312 APPENDIX E group affiliations? Why does ethnicity matter for collective action? How well are people able to identify the ethnic backgrounds of others? He approaches each of these questions with a combination of theory and the collection of original data (including experimental data). Peru Team Members: Moises Arce, consultant; Tabitha Benney, National Acad- emies; David Black, USAID; Thad Dunning, consultant; Rita Guenther, National Academies. Moises Arce is an associate professor in the Department of Political Sci- ence at the University of Missouri. His research focuses on the politics of market reform, comparative political economy, and Latin American poli- tics (Peru). He received funding from the National Science Foundation, the Social Science Research Council, and the Fulbright Scholar Program. His publications include the book Market Reform in Society: Post-Crisis Poli- tics and Economic Change in Authoritarian Peru, and articles in the Journal of Politics, Comparative Politics, Comparative Political Studies, and the Latin American Research Review. He previously taught at Louisiana State Univer- sity. He received his Ph.D. in 2000 from the University of New Mexico. Thad Dunning is assistant professor of political science and a research fellow at the Whitney and Betty MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies at Yale. His current research focuses on the influence of natu- ral resource wealth on political regimes; other recent articles investigate the influence of foreign aid on democratization and the role of informa- tion technology in economic development. He conducts field research in Latin America and has also written on a range of methodological topics, including econometric corrections for selection effects and the use of natural experiments in the social sciences. Dunning’s previous work has appeared in International Organization, the Journal of Conflict Resolution, Studies in Comparative International Development, Geopolitics and in a forth- coming Handbook of Methodology (Sage Publications). In 2006-2007, he was teaching an undergraduate lecture course and a seminar on ethnic politics and a graduate seminar on formal models of comparative politics. He received a Ph.D. in political science and an M.A. in economics from the University of California, Berkeley. 

APPENDIX E 313 Uganda Team Members: Mark Billera, USAID; Mame-Fatou Diagne, consultant; John Gerring, committee member; Jo Husbands, National Academies; Devra Cohen Moelher, consultant. Mame-Fatou Diagne is a Ph.D. candidate in economics at the University of California, Berkeley. A native of Senegal, she graduated from the Insti- tut d’Etudes Politiques de Paris and received a Master of International Affairs from Columbia University. She has worked as an emerging mar- kets economist for Societe Generale in Paris and for Standard and Poor’s in London, where she was the principal analyst for South Africa and other African-rated sovereigns. Her current areas of research are development, public and labor economics, and particularly, the economics of education and political economy in Africa. Devra Cohen Moehler is an assistant professor of political science at Cor- nell University. She recently returned to Cornell from two years as a Harvard Academy Scholar at the Harvard Academy for International and Area Studies. Her research interests include political communications, education and democratization, consequences of political participation, political behavior, comparative constitution-making, law and develop- ment, cross-national survey research, and the international refugee regime. Her dissertation, based on research conducted in Uganda, focused on the effects of citizen participation in Ugandan constitution making in creating “distrusting democrats.” She received her Ph.D. in political science from the University of Michigan and a B.A. in development studies from the University of California, Berkeley. 

Over the past 25 years, the United States has made support for the spread of democracy to other nations an increasingly important element of its national security policy. These efforts have created a growing demand to find the most effective means to assist in building and strengthening democratic governance under varied conditions.

Since 1990, the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has supported democracy and governance (DG) programs in approximately 120 countries and territories, spending an estimated total of $8.47 billion (in constant 2000 U.S. dollars) between 1990 and 2005. Despite these substantial expenditures, our understanding of the actual impacts of USAID DG assistance on progress toward democracy remains limited—and is the subject of much current debate in the policy and scholarly communities.

This book, by the National Research Council, provides a roadmap to enable USAID and its partners to assess what works and what does not, both retrospectively and in the future through improved monitoring and evaluation methods and rebuilding USAID's internal capacity to build, absorb, and act on improved knowledge.

READ FREE ONLINE

Welcome to OpenBook!

You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

Show this book's table of contents , where you can jump to any chapter by name.

...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter .

Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

View our suggested citation for this chapter.

Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

Get Email Updates

Do you enjoy reading reports from the Academies online for free ? Sign up for email notifications and we'll let you know about new publications in your areas of interest when they're released.

An official website of the United States government.

Here’s how you know

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Misclassification
• Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA)
• Pump at Work
• Maternal Health
• Retaliation
• Government Contracts
• Immigration
• Child Labor
• Agricultural Employment
• Subminimum Wage
• Employment of Workers With Disabilities
• Lie Detector Tests
• Davis Bacon Prevailing Wage Survey
• WORKER RIGHTS
• Resources For Employers
• Regulatory Library
• Interpretive Guidance
• Industry-Specific Resources
• Compliance Assistance
• elaws Advisors
• Fact Sheets
• New and Small Businesses Resources
• Presentations
• External User Portal (EUP)
• Compliance Assistance Toolkits
• New and Small Business Resources
• Publications By Language
• FLSA Compliance Videos
• Know Your Rights Video Series
• Employer.gov
• DOL Enforcement Database
• Workers Owed Wages
• Order Publications
• Laws and Regulations
• Field Handbook
• Administrator Interpretations, Opinion and Ruling Letters
• Field Bulletins
• State Minimum Wage Laws
• State Labor Law Topics
• State Labor Offices
• Resources for State and Local Governments
• NEWS RELEASES

WAGE AND HOUR DIVISION

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF LABOR

Fact Sheet #44: Visits to Employers

Revised January 2015

This Fact Sheet provides general information about the laws enforced by the Wage and Hour Division (WHD).

Purpose of Visit

WHD is responsible for administering and enforcing a number of federal laws which set basic labor standards, among them:

• The Fair Labor Standards Act
• The Family and Medical Leave Act
• The Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Worker Protection Act
• The Field Sanitation Standards of the Occupational Safety and Health Act
• The Employee Polygraph Protection Act
• Certain employment standards and worker protections under the Immigration and Nationality Act
• Government contracts prevailing wage statutes such as the Davis-Bacon and related Acts and the McNamara-O’Hara Service Contract Act
• Garnishment provisions of the Consumer Credit Protection Act

An investigator from WHD may conduct an investigation to determine whether these laws apply to an employer. If the employer is subject to these laws, the investigator will verify that workers are paid and employed properly according to the laws administered, and that youths under age 18 are employed as provided by the child labor provisions. The WHD does not require an investigator to previously announce the scheduling of an investigation, although in many instances the investigator will advise an employer prior to opening the investigation. The investigator has sufficient latitude to initiate unannounced investigations in many cases in order to directly observe normal business operations and develop factual information quickly.

An investigator may also visit an employer to provide information about the application of, and compliance with, the labor laws administered by WHD.

Why is an employer selected for an investigation?

The WHD conducts investigations for a number of reasons, all having to do with enforcement of the laws and assuring an employer’s compliance. WHD does not typically disclose the reason for an investigation. Many are initiated by complaints. All complaints are confidential; the name of the worker and the nature of the complaint are not disclosable; whether a complaint exists may not be disclosed.

In addition to complaints, WHD selects certain types of businesses or industries for investigation. The WHD targets low-wage industries, for example, because of high rates of violations or egregious violations, the employment of vulnerable workers, or rapid changes in an industry such as growth or decline. Occasionally, a number of businesses in a specific geographic area will be examined. The objective of targeted investigations is to improve compliance with the laws in those businesses, industries, or localities. Regardless of the particular reason that prompted the investigation, all investigations are conducted in accordance with established policies and procedures.

Investigation Procedures

Investigations may be conducted under any one or more of the laws enforced by WHD. Most employers are subject to the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), which is the primary federal law of most general application requiring payment of the minimum wage and overtime premium pay , keeping certain basic payroll and employment records, and limiting the working hours and types of jobs for certain underage youths. The procedures described below for FLSA investigations are generally applicable to WHD investigations under other laws.

Section 11(a) of the FLSA authorizes representatives of the Department of Labor to investigate and gather data concerning wages, hours, and other employment practices; enter and inspect an employer’s premises and records; and question employees to determine whether any person has violated any provision of the FLSA.

The WHD investigator will identify himself/herself and present official credentials. The investigator will explain the investigation process and the types of records required during the review.

An investigation consists of the following steps:

• Examination of records to determine which laws or exemptions apply. These records include, for example, those showing the employer’s annual dollar volume of business transactions, involvement in interstate commerce, and work on government contracts. Information from an employer’s records will not be revealed to unauthorized persons.
• Examination of payroll and time records, and taking notes or making transcriptions or photocopies essential to the investigation.
• Interviews with certain employees in private. The purpose of these interviews is to verify the employer’s payroll and time records, to identify workers’ particular duties in sufficient detail to decide which exemptions apply, if any, and to confirm that minors are legally employed. Interviews are normally conducted on the employer’s premises. In some instances, present and former employees may be interviewed at their homes or by mail or telephone.
• When all the fact-finding steps have been completed, the investigator will ask to meet with the employer and/or a representative of the firm who has authority to reach decisions and commit the employer to corrective actions if violations have occurred. The employer will be told whether violations have occurred and, if so, what they are and how to correct them. If back wages are owed to employees because of minimum wage or overtime violations, the investigator will request payment of back wages and may ask the employer to compute the amounts due.

Employers may be represented by their accountants or attorneys at any point during this process. When the investigator has advised the employer of his/her findings, the employer or representative may present additional facts for consideration if violations were disclosed.

What enforcement remedies are available under the laws administered?

The FLSA gives the Department of Labor (“Department”) the authority to recover back wages and liquidated damages (to be paid to employees), and to assess civil money penalties (to be paid to the government), in instances of minimum wage, overtime, and other violations.

What enforcement procedures are provided under the laws administered?

The Department makes every effort to resolve most compliance issues administratively. If appropriate, the Department may litigate and/or recommend criminal prosecution.

Administrative procedures:

• The Department is authorized to supervise the payment of unpaid minimum wages and/or unpaid overtime compensation owed to any employee(s).
• In lieu of litigation, the Department may seek back wages, liquidated damages, and civil money penalties, if applicable, through settlements with employers.
• Civil money penalties may be assessed for child labor violations and for repeat and/or willful violations of FLSA minimum wage or overtime requirements.

Litigation procedures:

• The Department may file a lawsuit in U.S. District Court on behalf of employees for back wages and an equal amount in liquidated damages.
• The Department may seek a U.S. District Court injunction to restrain violations of the law, including the unlawful withholding of proper minimum wage and overtime pay, failure to keep proper records, and retaliation against employees who file complaints and/or cooperate with the Department.
• The Department may seek an order for payment of civil money penalties from a U.S. Department of Labor Administrative Law Judge where appropriate.
• An employee may file a private suit to recover back wages, an equal amount in liquidated damages, plus attorney’s fees and court costs. In such a case, the Department will not seek the same back wages and liquidated damages on that employee’s behalf.
• The FLSA provides that DOL may seek a U.S. District Court order to prevent the shipment of the affected goods.

Criminal prosecution:

• Employers who have willfully violated the law may be subject to criminal penalties, including fines and imprisonment.

Retaliation is prohibited

Employees who have filed complaints or provided information cannot be discriminated against or discharged on account of such activity. If adverse action is taken against an employee for engaging in protected activity, the affected employee or the Secretary of Labor may file suit for relief, including reinstatement to his/her job, payment of lost wages, and damages.

Other laws administered by WHD

Many of the above provisions are found in other laws administered by WHD. For example, the Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Worker Protection Act also provides for the assessment of back wages, civil money penalties, criminal sanctions, fines and imprisonment.

In the case of the government contracts statutes, contract funds may be withheld for violations under the Walsh-Healey Public Contracts Act, McNamara-O’Hara Service Contract Act, Davis-Bacon and Related Acts, and Contract Work Hours and Safety Standards Act. Administrative hearings or, in some cases, court action may be initiated to recover back pay under these laws. In addition, liquidated damages may be assessed for certain violations. Violators of these laws may also lose their Federal contracts and be declared ineligible for future contracts for a specified period.

Where to Obtain Additional Information

For additional information, visit our Wage and Hour Division Website: http://www.dol.gov/agencies/whd and/or call our toll-free information and helpline, available 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. in your time zone, 1-866-4USWAGE (1-866-487-9243).

This publication is for general information and is not to be considered in the same light as official statements of position contained in the regulations.

The contents of this document do not have the force and effect of law and are not meant to bind the public in any way. This document is intended only to provide clarity to the public regarding existing requirements under the law or agency policies.

Salesforce is closed for new business in your area.