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This Day In History : October 10

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Battle of Tours

At the Battle of Tours near Poitiers, France, Frankish leader Charles Martel, a Christian, defeats a large army of Spanish Moors, halting the Muslim advance into Western Europe. Abd-ar-Rahman, the Muslim governor of Cordoba, was killed in the fighting, and the Moors retreated from Gaul, never to return in such force.

Charles was the illegitimate son of Pepin, the powerful mayor of the palace of Austrasia and effective ruler of the Frankish kingdom. After Pepin died in 714 (with no surviving legitimate sons), Charles beat out Pepin’s three grandsons in a power struggle and became mayor of the Franks. He expanded the Frankish territory under his control and in 732 repulsed an onslaught by the Muslims.

Victory at Tours ensured the ruling dynasty of Martel’s family, the Carolingians. His son Pepin became the first Carolingian king of the Franks, and his grandson Charlemagne carved out a vast empire that stretched across Europe.

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The Battle of Tours - 732 AD fr de , en ,

Charles Martel was a ruler of the Carolingian Frankish Empire in the early 8 th century AD. The empire encompassed the territories of much of modern day France, western Germany, Switzerland, as well as Belgium and the Netherlands, and was the dominant Christian power in Western Europe at the time. Having won a civil war between two competing kingdoms in 724, Charles had secured his position as head ruler of the entire Carolingian Empire, but had not yet been granted the title of King.

Although he was constantly repelling Saxon and Bavarian armies, as well as other threats, the empire was for the most part secure. Charles supported St. Boniface and other missionaries in their efforts to convert all remaining German tribes to Christianity as a way of uniting his region. The European continent was slowly becoming more prosperous and stable. But a new threat had begun working its way towards the heart of Western Civilization 100 years prior to Charles’ rule.

Islam Expanding

In the Middle East, the religion of Islam was formed in 622 AD. The region was quickly united under the new religion and then began to conquer more distant lands. By 711 Islamic armies had crossed the Gibraltar Straight and entered into Europe by way of present day Spain. It was from here that they began to set up new kingdoms and seek to conquer other parts of Europe, primarily for plunder of any type of treasure they could find.

The indigenous peoples of Europe referred to the Islamic invaders as the Saracens. From Spain the door stood wide open for the Saracens to enter into France, the conquest of which would have likely been followed by all the rest of Europe, and might have resulted in the banishment of Christianity from the Earth. At this time Christianity was not universally known or practiced, even by those nations which we today regard as the foremost in civilization. Great parts of Britain, Germany, Denmark, and Russia were still pagan and barbarous.

In 712 the Saracens entered into France and began pillaging the region for treasure. In 725 Anbessa, the Saracen governor of Spain, personally leads an army across the Pyrenees Mountains into France and takes the strongly fortified town of Carcassone. During the battle he receives a fatal wound, and the Saracen army retires into the nearby town of Narbonne before retreating back to the safety of Spain.

In 732 the Saracens invade France again under the command of Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman. They reach Bordeaux and begin to lay siege to the town when they get word of rich treasures in the Basilica of St. Martin in the city of Tours. They set off towards this area with the intent to plunder it for all it's worth.

Up to this point, the Carolingian Empire, ruled by King Charles, had no need to oppose the Saracens since they had not invaded any of his territories. The area of the Saracens plunder had been Aquitaine, an independent kingdom in southwestern France ruled by King Eude. Having learned of the damage being done to his neighboring kingdom, Charles becomes convinced of the danger presented to his territories. If Aquitaine were to be defeated, his kingdom would surely be next. Charles begins to march an army towards the Saracen invaders to confront them on his own terms.

While Abd al Rahman is advancing towards Tours, he receives intelligence regarding the advance of Charles and his army. He decides to fall back on Poitiers in order to occupy a more advantageous field of battle. Charles, leading an army of such size rarely seen in Europe, crosses the Loire River and joins the remains of the army of Aquitaine.

They come in sight of the Arabs on October 10 th , 732. The enemy spots Charles and his army and at first hesitates. The two armies remain camped, staring each other down, for seven days. Abd al Rahman at last gives the signal to attack. The Saracens rush the Franks with all their might but the Frankish front line holds. The battle rages on until late in the day, when a terrible clamor is heard from behind the Saracen army. It is King Eude, attacking the Saracen camp, stealing all of their ill-gotten plunder. The Saracen army frantically rushes back to protect their possessions.

In this moment of confusion the Franks advance. Abd al Rahman is killed in the chaos. The Saracens regain control of their camp. By this time the sun is beginning to set, and Charles decides to wait until the next day to resume combat, not wanting to risk losing any more troops at night.

The next morning the Franks awake early and assemble their army, expecting to rejoin battle with their enemy. They wait, but no enemy appears. They cautiously approach the Saracen camp and find it completely empty. The Saracens had taken advantage of the night and begun their retreat back towards Spain, leaving most of their plunder behind. As the battlefield was surveyed that day, it was realized that a vast number of Saracen men had been slain. The Franks counted their losses and found that only 1500 of their men had been killed.

Charles is finally proclaimed King of the Carolingian Empire, and for his enormous victory he receives the surname of Martel, "The Hammer". He would later become the grandfather of Charlemagne. The Carolingian Empire becomes the Holy Roman Empire, with Charlemagne proclaimed Emperor by the Pope on Christmas Day, 800 AD. This empire survives for over 1000 years until it is formally dissolved in 1806.

The battle of Tours marks a major turning point in the history of Western Civilization. One where the spread of Islam into Europe was reversed, and Christianity begins to give the people of Europe something more in common with each other. By the year 1000 AD, the continent would be doing fairly well. It would be generally free from foreign attack and steadily creating a more prosperous future.

Do not assume that I have come to bring peace to the earth; I have not come to bring peace, but a sword. Matthew 10:34

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Battle of Tours: Its Significance and Historical Implications

Celeste Neill

01 oct 2018.

On 10 October 732 Frankish General Charles Martel crushed an invading Muslim army at Tours in France , decisively halting the Islamic advance into Europe.

The Islamic advance

After the death of the Prophet Muhammed in 632 AD the speed of the spread of Islam was extraordinary, and by 711 Islamic armies were poised to invade Spain from North Africa. Defeating the Visigothic kingdom of Spain was a prelude to increasing raids into Gaul, or modern France, and in 725 Islamic armies reached as far north as the Vosgues mountains near the modern border with Germany .

Opposing them was the Merovingian Frankish kingdom , perhaps the foremost power in western Europe. However given the seemingly unstoppable nature of the Islamic advance into the lands of the old Roman Empire further Christian defeats seemed almost inevitable.

Map of the Umayyad Caliphate in 750 AD. Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

In 731 Abd al-Rahman, a Muslim warlord north of the Pyrenees who answered to his distant Sultan in Damascus, received reinforcements from North Africa. The Muslims were preparing for a major campaign into Gaul.

The campaign commenced with an invasion of the southern kingdom of Aquitaine, and after defeating the Aquitanians in battle Abd al-Rahman’s army burned their capital of Bordeaux in June 732. The defeated Aquitanian ruler Eudes fled north to the Frankish kingdom with the remnants of his forces in order to plead for help from a fellow Christian, but old enemy: Charles Martel .

Martel’s name meant “the hammer” and he had already many successful campaigns in the name of his lord Thierry IV, mainly against other Christians such as the unfortunate Eudes, who he met somewhere near Paris . Following this meeting Martel ordered a ban , or general summons, as he prepared the Franks for war.

14th century depiction of Charles Martel (middle). Image credit: Public Domain, via Wikimedia Commons

The Battle of Tours

Once his army had gathered, he marched to the fortified city of Tours, on the border with Aquitaine, to await the Muslim advance. After three months of pillaging Aquitaine, al-Rahman obliged.

His army outnumbered that of Martel but the Frank had a solid core of experienced armoured heavy infantry who he could rely upon to withstand a Muslim cavalry charge.

With both armies unwilling to enter the bloody business of a Medieval battle but the Muslims desperate to pillage the rich cathedral outside the walls of Tours, an uneasy standoff prevailed for seven days before the battle finally began. With winter coming al-Rahman knew that he had to attack.

The battle began with thundering cavalry charges from Rahman’s army but, unusually for a Medieval battle, Martel’s excellent infantry weathered the onslaught and retained their formation. Meanwhile, Prince Eudes’ Aquitanian cavalry used superior local knowledge to outflank the Muslim armies and attack their camp from the rear.

Christian sources then claim that this caused many Muslim soldiers to panic and attempt to flee to save their loot from the campaign. This trickle became a full retreat, and the sources of both sides confirm that al-Rahman died fighting bravely whilst trying to rally his men in the fortified camp.

The battle then ceased for the night, but with much of the Muslim army still at large Martel was cautious about a possible feigned retreat to lure him out into being smashed by the Islamic cavalry. However, searching the hastily abandoned camp and surrounding area revealed that the Muslims had fled south with their loot. The Franks had won.

Despite the deaths of al-Rahman and an estimated 25,000 others at Tours, this war was not over. A second equally dangerous raid into Gaul in 735 took four years to repulse, and the reconquest of Christian territories beyond the Pyrenees would not begin until the reign of Martel’s celebrated grandson Charlemagne.

Martel would later found the famous Carolingian dynasty in Frankia, which would one day extend to most of western Europe and spread Christianity into the east.

Tours was a hugely important moment in the history of Europe, for though the battle of itself was perhaps not as seismic as some have claimed, it stemmed the tide of Islamic advance and showed the European heirs of Rome that these foreign invaders could be defeated.

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The Battle of Tours - A Decisive Fight for Europe’s Future

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The early medieval world of our ancestors was built upon struggles and decisive battles. The emerging nations united the broken tribes, expanded their borders, conquered their enemies, and often enough - fended off invaders. But rare are the battles that really left a long lasting impact that echoed through the generations that followed.

Rare are such conflicts that changed the history of the world with their importance and decided the future of us all for centuries to come. And one of those rare, world-changing battles is the Battle of Tours - fought in 732 AD between the Christian Frankish forces and the invading Muslim Umayyad Caliphate.

This fierce and destructive conflict, that shaped the future of Europe and echoed through time, was a great gamble, fought against all odds. But it remains as one of the biggest lessons of Europe’s past, and today we are going in detail about that fated day in 732.

A triumphant Charles Martel (mounted) faces Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi (right) at the Battle of Tours. Source: Bender235 / Public Domain .

The Prelude to the Battle of Tours

Around the very beginning of the 8 th century, in the year 700 AD, the Muslim Umayyad Caliphate was rapidly spreading its empire around the world. It was the second of the four great caliphates that emerged after the death of Muhammad and was one of the largest empires of the world at the time.

After conquering the lands of North Africa, they saw mainland Europe as the next prey for their conquests. From the shores of North Africa, they had a clear passage - in the form of the Gibraltar Strait. This would allow their forces to cross over onto the Iberian Peninsula , from which they would spread further inland.

At the time, Iberia was under the control of the Visigothic Kingdom, a centralized state under the rule of King Roderic. Nonetheless, the Umayyads crossed the strait in the year 711 AD, under the leadership of one Tariq ibn Ziyad, and soon after clashed with the Visigothic army in the Battle of Guadalete, in the same year, in the very south of Iberia.

The "Age of the Caliphs", shows the Umayyad dominance stretched from the Middle East to the Iberian Peninsula, including the port of Narbonne, c. 720. (McZusatz / Public Domain )

At the time of the Umayyad invasion, King Roderic was far in the north, attempting to fight a Basque rebellion. This unfortunately placed him in a bad situation, as he was forced to a long march south, to face this much bigger enemy. In the end, the Visigoths were defeated in the face of the overwhelming Muslim cavalry.

In the battle, King Roderic and most of the nobles of his kingdom lost their lives, which allowed the Umayyads to effectively conquer Iberia, step by step. This they managed in just a little under seven years. And once Iberia was theirs, Frankish Gaul was just a step away.

The only thing that divided the Umayyads from their prey - the Frankish Kingdom - were the Pyrenees Mountains . This was a fitting natural barrier - but it was in no way untraversable. In time, the Umayyads began crossing over and making incursions into the very south of Gaul. By 720 they conquered the southern province of Septimania.

In the following year, they focused on the large city to the immediate west, Toulouse, which they besieged. This siege was brought to an end by the prominent Frankish Duke Odo - who managed to overwhelm the Umayyad forces outside Toulouse and defeat them. Nonetheless, large numbers of Umayyads kept crossing over the Pyrenees and laying waste to the southern provinces of Gaul.

The Duchy of Aquitaine laid in the south and faced the brunt of this invasion. Its largest towns, Bordeaux and Toulouse were ravaged, and in no time the invaders reached even the Duchy of Burgundy to its north.

But it wasn’t until 732 that the Umayyad Caliphate truly amassed its forces with proper conquering intentions and adequate strength. The man that was at the head of this force was Abdul Rahman al Ghafiqi, the then-Governor General of Muslim Iberia. He led his forces across the Pyrenees once again and plundered the land and all the cities he came across.

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Abdul Rahman al Ghafiqi led his troops over the Pyrenees Mountains toward the Battle of Tours. (Jean-Christophe BENOIST / CC BY-SA 3.0 )

The Umayyads greatly coveted riches, and their main activity during this conquest was plunder. After completely ransacking Bordeaux once again, the Umayyad forces faced Duke Odo once more. Odo led his army in an attempt to stop the invasion as he did a few years before.

But this time, he was terribly outnumbered and outmaneuvered, and his forces were crushed. Realizing the gravity of the situation, and that his own lands of Aquitaine were overrun, Odo fled to the north seeking assistance from the de-facto ruler of the Frankish Kingdom - Charles Martel.

Before the Umayyad invasion Odo and Charles were enemies. Charles sought to expand his lordship over Aquitaine and Odo saw the Franks as invaders. But with this new and much greater threat, Odo had no choice but to seek help from the Franks. Charles Martel agreed to join up with him, but the “price” was Odo’s acceptance of Frankish overlordship. Odo agreed.

The Hammer Enters the Fray

Charles Martel was a seasoned ruler and a battle hardened veteran. His troops were equally experienced having been in constant clashes along the eastern borders of their kingdom, fighting neighboring tribes.

Charles also understood how important the situation was and began gathering his levies from all over the north. And he would show his shrewdness as a battle commander, when he carefully understood the intentions of his enemy.

Meanwhile, the Umayyad forces moved slowly across the Frankish lands, their forces spread into war parties that ravaged the countryside and amassed an enormous amount of plunder. This “greedy” focus on war booty would greatly influence their future undoing. They had to take their time, as they greatly depended on the crop season for their food source.

But their destination was clear to Charles Martel. It was the rich city of Tours - prominent and wealthy, filled with abbeys of great importance. Thus, Charles placed his Frankish forces directly on the path of the coming Umayyads. He situated his army roughly in between the city of Tours and the ravaged town of Poitiers further south.

The Franks were placed close to the confluence of rivers Clain and Vienne, on a slightly elevated and forested hill. Charles Martel deliberately and shrewdly chose this position. First of all - he was outnumbered and knew it.

Map of the Battle of Tours with the position of Charles Martel's army. (Evzen M / Public Domain )

Thus he chose the cover of the forest to displace his troops and hide his number in hope to not reveal his disadvantage. Secondly - he chose a place where the Umayyads would have to enter into battle, as the only crossing over the rivers was behind the Frankish forces. Thirdly - the forest protected his troops - mainly the second lines - from the full brunt of a cavalry charge, and somewhat protected his sides from flanking attacks.

When the Umayyads approached the assembled Christian army, their leader Abdul Rahman al Ghafiqi - also a seasoned commander - knew that Charles Martel took the upper hand, by choosing his preferred place of battle. Even so, al Ghafiqi trusted in his strength and deployed for battle.

One thing he must have noticed is the difference in the troops - Umayyads relied heavily on cavalry, while the Franks were mostly footmen. But he failed to take several things into account.

The Muslim cavalry was lightly armored - they preferred to adorn themselves with chainmail and not much else in terms of armor. Riches and trinkets were much more to their liking.

They also rode willful Arabic horses, which were difficult to break in, and thus not the truly perfect cavalry mounts. Some historians also mention that this cavalry was in large part armed with spears - which were unseasoned and would break on first impact.

The Muslim cavalry rode willful Arabic horses during the Battle of Tours. (Trzęsacz / Public Domain )

On the other hand, the Frankish infantry was thoroughly seasoned. Most of the army were veterans, with only a small part of fresh recruits reserved in the second lines. They were well armored for the time, and well-armed as well. They stood packed in tight lines and ready for a cavalry charge.

But the battle did not begin immediately. The opposing forces “tested the waters”, with sporadic small skirmishes going on for seven days.

This was in truth a deliberate stalling from al Ghafiqi, who waited for his whole army to assemble fully. In the end, with the Umayyads fearing the approaching winter, they commenced battle on the seventh day - on the 10th of October 732 AD.

The Umayyad Wave That Broke On the Frankish Rock

The Umayyad commander, al Ghafiqi, heavily relied on his cavalry, even though he didn’t possess much knowledge about the assembled enemy. He sent waves of cavalry charges in an attempt to break the Frankish lines - but this did not happen. The seasoned Franks were tightly packed - shoulder to shoulder - and withstood all assaults.

The rare combination of slight elevation, good arms and armor, and tree cover allowed them to hold their ground - when it was almost impossible for infantry to hold against cavalry in medieval times. Even when some small parts of the line faltered and broke under the cavalry, the fresh second lines were quick to react - sealing the gap.

Frankish knight fighting against an Umayyad horseman. (Helix84 / Public Domain )

As the battle went on in that way, Duke Odo commenced a crucial flanking operation that greatly tipped the scales in Frankish favor. He gathered a cavalry force and flanked wide - reaching the distant Muslim encampment - i.e. their rear. This was where the Umayyad tents were and all of their abundant plunder.

Odo managed to inflict great losses here, retrieve the precious plunder, free around 200 captive Franks, and draw the eye of the enemy. But what happened next was more than he hoped for. Upon realizing that their camp and their plunder were under attack, many Umayyad units from the central battlefield rushed back in a frenzy to save their loot.

This was an unprecedented situation, one that al Ghafiqi never expected. His attempts at rallying his troops were in vain, and Charles Martel - who knew exactly what he was doing - seized this opportunity.

As the Umayyad forces dissipated to retrieve the loot, he swung his forces from left, right, and center, and engaged in both pursuit and encirclement. The remaining body of the Umayyads was surrounded and suffered immense casualties.

The chief of these was al Ghafiqi himself - who fell in battle while attempting to rally his troops. Meanwhile, Duke Odo swung north again and cut off the fleeing Umayyads, inflicting great losses. In effect, the Umayyad forces fled.

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Charles Martel gathered his cavalry at Battle of Tours and attacked the Umayyad encampment. (Levan Ramishvili / Public Domain )

Now, Charles Martel expected a second day of battles and remained in his position, treating the wounded and re-organizing. But another day never came. The Umayyads, with their commander dead, could not successfully organize another attack or choose a fitting leader. They had suffered great losses as well.

Charles Martel feared an ambush and would not descend from the hill at any cost. Eventually, he sent out extensive reconnaissance parties to survey the Umayyad forces - but only to learn that there were none. They had gathered all the remaining plunder they could and fled during the night - extremely hastily. They had returned to Iberia.

Charles Martel won a crushing and glorious victory that cemented his reputation of a noble and capable leader. He was praised all across Europe as the savior of the Christendom and the “Hammer that Broke the Muslims”. Thus he earned his nickname - Martel - meaning Charles the Hammer.

He subsequently expanded his rule over Aquitaine and successfully isolated the invaders to the southern region of Septimania, where they remained for another 27 years and were completely unable to break through. Charles’ wealth, influence, power, and ability led to the emergence of the Carolingian dynasty , which would rise and last for centuries to follow.

Charles Martel's military campaigns in Aquitaine, Septimania, and Provence after the Battle of Tour-Poitiers (734–742). (Iñaki LLM / CC BY-SA 3.0 )

Changing the Future of the World

The Europe of the early 18 th century desperately needed a capable and strong commander that would stop the Muslim Umayyad invaders dead in their tracks. And that commander was Charles Martel. He stood up to ravaging flood of conquerors and using his superior tactics, shrewdness, and reputation, he managed to win a crushing battle - against all odds. Like a beacon that kept burning throughout a storm, his Frankish warriors defied their enemy in battle. And it is this battle that changed the course of European history, and with that - the history of the World.

Top image: Medieval soldier at war. Credit: Andrey Kiselev / Adobe Stock

By Aleksa Vučković

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I am a published author of over ten historical fiction novels, and I specialize in Slavic linguistics. Always pursuing my passions for writing, history and literature, I strive to deliver a thrilling and captivating read that touches upon history's most... Read More

The making of a world historical moment: The Battle of Tours (732/3) in the nineteenth century

Original Article
Published: 17 July 2019
Volume 10 , pages 206–218, ( 2019 )

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The Battle of Tours (or Poitiers) in 732/3 is frequently cited as a turning point in world history, when the advance of Muslim Arabs was decisively halted by the Christian army of Frankish mayor Charles Martel. Yet the battle and its reputation seem relatively modest in the earliest sources, with little sense that conquest or religious tensions were key issues. This paper explores how the importance of the battle became amplified in grand historical narratives produced across Europe and in the U.S. in the nineteenth century, as historians contributed to arguments about national and religious identities. It highlights in particular the ways that historians, from Michelet to Oman, were led by their own dispositions in speculating about what could have happened had the result been different. In the process, although their interpretations often differed, debate about the battle generated the legend popular in modern political discourse.

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Palmer, J.T. The making of a world historical moment: The Battle of Tours (732/3) in the nineteenth century. Postmedieval 10 , 206–218 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41280-019-00126-y

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Battle of Tours (732?)

Introduction, general overviews.

The Continuations of the Chronicle of Fredegar
The Chronicle of 754
Other Early Sources
Muslims and Christians in the Eighth Century
Frankish Politics
Muslims in Early Medieval Francia
Frankish Warfare
Andalusi Warfare
The Brunner Thesis
The End of Muslim Expansion in Gaul
The Memory of the Battle of Tours

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Battle of Tours (732?) by Sam Ottewill-Soulsby LAST REVIEWED: 20 February 2024 LAST MODIFIED: 20 February 2024 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199791279-0247

Despite being one of the most famous engagements of the medieval period, there are many uncertainties about the Battle of Tours, including its date, precise location, and significance. The traditional dating of the battle to October 732 has been questioned by scholars on the basis of Iberian sources, with many preferring to place it in late 733 or 734. Because the encounter took place between Tours and Poitiers, it is sometimes also named after the latter city. What is known is that the battle took place because the Muslim governor of al-Andalus, ʿAbd al-Rahman b. ʿAbd Allah al-Ghafiqi, invaded Aquitaine, motivated by an alliance between its Duke, Eudo, and the rebel Berber border lord ʿUthman b. Naissa. After being defeated, Eudo turned to the Frankish Mayor of the Palace, Charles Martel. The Frankish and Muslim armies met on the road to Tours, with the former being victorious. Al-Ghafiqi was killed, but his army retreated in good order. The significance of this clash has long been debated. The battle has been hailed as one of the most important in history for halting the expansion of the caliphate in western Europe and cementing the prestige and power of Charles Martel and his descendants, the Carolingians. More recent scholars have questioned this assessment, pointing to the continuation of Muslim raids into Frankish territory in subsequent years and the limited presence of the battle in Carolingian history writing. Beyond dispute is the modern importance of the Battle of Tours, inspiring numerous books, works of art, and political movements.

While the Battle of Tours has occasioned much interest, sober scholarly accounts are harder to come by. Collins 1994 addresses the subject from an Iberian perspective, drawing heavily on the Chronicle of 754 . Fouracre 2000 , a biography of Charles Martel, approaches the battle from a Frankish background.

Collins, Roger. The Arab Conquest of Spain 711–797 . Oxford: Blackwell, 1994.

Offers an extremely useful account of the battle within the context of al-Andalus. Argues strongly in favor of a date in 733 or 734 on the basis of the Chronicle of 754 .

Fouracre, Paul. The Age of Charles Martel . Harlow: Longman, 2000.

DOI: 10.4324/9781315845647

The best overview of the career of Charles Martel, good for situating the Battle of Tours within wider Frankish politics, with a greater emphasis on the Frankish sources.

Users without a subscription are not able to see the full content on this page. Please subscribe or login .

Oxford Bibliographies Online is available by subscription and perpetual access to institutions. For more information or to contact an Oxford Sales Representative click here .

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Muslim Invasions of Western Europe: The 732 Battle of Tours

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The Battle of Tours was fought during the Muslim invasions of Western Europe in the 8th century.

Armies & Commanders at the Battle of Tours

Charles Martel
20,000-30,000 men
Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi
unknown, but perhaps as high as 80,000 men

Battle of Tours - Date

Martel's triumph at the Battle of Tours occurred on October 10, 732.

Background on the Battle of Tours

In 711, the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate crossed into the Iberian Peninsula from Northern Africa and quickly began overrunning the region's Visigothic Christian kingdoms. Consolidating their position on the peninsula, they used the area as a platform for commencing raids over the Pyrenees into modern-day France. Initially meeting little resistance, they were able to gain a foothold and the forces of Al-Samh ibn Malik established their capital at Narbonne in 720. Commencing attacks against Aquitaine, they were checked at the Battle of Toulouse in 721. This saw Duke Odo defeat the Muslim invaders and kill Al-Samh. Retreating to Narbonne, Umayyad troops continued raiding west and north reached as far as Autun, Burgundy in 725.

In 732, Umayyad forces led by the governor of Al-Andalus, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, advanced in force into Aquitaine. Meeting Odo at the Battle of the River Garonne they won a decisive victory and commenced sacking the region. Fleeing north, Odo sought aid from the Franks. Coming before Charles Martel, the Frankish mayor of the palace, Odo was promised aid only if he promised to submit to the Franks. Agreeing, Martel began raising his army to meet the invaders. In the years previous, having assessed the situation in Iberia and the Umayyad attack on Aquitaine , Charles came to believe that a professional army, rather than raw conscripts, was needed to defend the realm from invasion. To raise the money necessary to build and train an army that could withstand the Muslim horsemen, Charles began seizing Church lands, earning the ire of the religious community.

Battle of Tours - Moving to Contact

Moving to intercept Abdul Rahman, Charles used secondary roads to avoid detection and allow him to select the battlefield. Marching with approximately 30,000 Frankish troops he assumed a position between the towns of Tours and Poitiers. For the battle, Charles selected a high, wooded plain which would force the Umayyad cavalry to charge uphill through unfavorable terrain. This included trees in front of the Frankish line which would aid in breaking up cavalry attacks. Forming a large square, his men surprised Abdul Rahman, who did not expect to encounter a large enemy army and forced the Umayyad emir to pause for a week to consider his options. This delay benefited Charles as it allowed him to summon more of his veteran infantry to Tours.

Battle of Tours - The Franks Stand Strong

As Charles reinforced, the increasingly cold weather began to prey on the Umayyads who were unprepared for the more northern climate. On the seventh day, after gathering all of his forces, Abdul Rahman attacked with his Berber and Arab cavalry. In one of the few instances where medieval infantry stood up to cavalry, Charles' troops defeated repeated Umayyad attacks. As the battle waged, the Umayyads finally broke through the Frankish lines and attempted to kill Charles. He was promptly surrounded by his personal guard who repulsed the attack. As this was occurring, scouts that Charles had sent out earlier were infiltrating the Umayyad camp and freeing prisoners and enslaved people.

Believing that the plunder of the campaign was being stolen, a large part of the Umayyad army broke off the battle and raced to protect their camp. This departure appeared as a retreat to their comrades who soon began to flee the field. While attempting to stop the apparent retreat, Abdul Rahman was surrounded and killed by Frankish troops. Briefly pursued by the Franks, the Umayyad withdrawal turned into a full retreat. Charles re-formed his troops expecting another attack the next day, but to his surprise, it never came as the Umayyads continued their retreat all the way to Iberia.

While exact casualties for the Battle of Tours are not known, some chronicles relate that Christian losses numbered around 1,500 while Abdul Rahman suffered approximately 10,000. Since Martel's victory, historians have argued over the battle's significance with some stating that his victory saved Western Christendom while others feel that its repercussions were minimal. Regardless, the Frankish victory at Tours, along with subsequent campaigns in 736 and 739, effectively stopped the advance of Muslim forces from Iberia allowing the further development of the Christian states in Western Europe.

Battle of Tours: 732
Decisive Battles: Battle of Tours
Battle of Tours: Primary Sources
Biography of Charles Martel, Frankish Military Leader and Ruler
What Was the Umayyad Caliphate?
Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia
Hundred Years' War: Battle of Poitiers
The Crusades: Battle of Hattin
Invasions of England: Battle of Hastings
What Effect Did the Crusades Have on the Middle East?
Teutonic War: Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg)
Charlemagne: Battle of Roncevaux Pass
Key Events in French History
Mongol Invasions: Battle of Legnica
Muslim Empire: Battle of Siffin
Indian Wars: Lt. Colonel George A. Custer
Roman Empire: Battle of the Milvian Bridge
Napoleonic Wars: Battle of Austerlitz
Little-Known Asian Battles That Changed History

Battle of Tours (732 A.D.)

The Battle of Tours (often called the Battle of Poitiers, but not to be confused with the Battle of Poitiers, 1356) was fought on October 10, 732 between forces under the Frankish leader Charles Martel and a massive invading Islamic army led by Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman, near the city of Tours, France. During the battle, the Franks defeated the Islamic army and Emir Abd er Rahman was killed. This battle stopped the northward advance of Islam from the Iberian peninsula, and is considered by most historians to be of macrohistorical importance, in that it halted the Islamic conquests, and preserved Christianity as the controlling faith in Europe, during a period in which Islam was overrunning the remains of the old Roman and Persian Empires.

Franks, led by Charles Martel. Estimates of the Frankish army defending Gaul vary, but by most accounts were between 15,000 and 75,000. Losses according to St. Denis were about 1,500.

Muslims, between 60,000 and 400,000 cavalry, (most likely closer to the lower number) under Abd er Rahman; besides source differences, this army is difficult to estimate in size, since it was often fractured into raiding parties to carry out the pillaging and plundering of various richly cultured Frankish centers; however, the entire Muslim army was present at Tours by Arab accounts. During the six days he waited to begin the Battle, Abd er Rahman recalled all those columns raiding and pillaging, so that on the seventh day, when by both eastern and western accounts the Battle began, both armies were at full strength.

The Muslims in northern Spain had easily overrun Septimania, had set up a capital at Narbonne which they called Arbuna, giving its largely Arian inhabitants honorable terms, and quickly pacified the south and for some years threatened Frankish territories. Duke Odo of Aquitaine, also known as Eudes the Great, had decisively defeated a major invasion force in 721 at the Battle of Toulouse, but Arab raids continued, in 725 reaching as far as the city of Autun in Burgundy. Threatened by both the Arabs in the south and by the Franks in the north, in 730 Eudes allied himself with Uthman ibn Naissa, called "Munuza" by the Franks, the Berber emir in what would later become Catalonia. As a gage, Uthman was given Eudes's daughter Lampade in marriage to seal the alliance, and Arab raids across the Pyrenees, Eudes' southern border, ceased [1].

However, the next year, Uthman rebelled against the governor of al-Andalus, Abd er Rahman. Abd er Rahman quickly crushed the revolt, and next directed his attention against the traitor's former ally, Eudes. According to one unidentified Arab, "That army went through all places like a desolating storm." Duke Eudes (called King by some), collected his army at Bordeaux, but was defeated, and Bordeaux was plundered. The slaughter of Christians at the River Garonne was evidently horrific; Isidorus Pacensis commented that "solus Deus numerum morientium vel pereuntium recognoscat", 'God alone knows the number of the slain' (Chronicon). The Muslim horsemen then utterly devastated that portion of Gaul, their own histories saying the "faithful pierced through the mountains, tramples over rough and level ground, plunders far into the country of the Franks, and smites all with the sword, insomuch that when Eudo came to battle with them at the River Garonne, and fled." Eudes appealed to the Franks for assistance, which Charles Martel only granted after Eudes agreed to submit to Frankish authority.

In 732, the Arab advance force was proceeding north toward the River Loire having already outpaced their supply train and a large part of their army. Essentially, having easily destroyed all resistance in that part of Gaul, the invading army had split off into several raiding parties, simply looting and destroying, while the main body advanced more slowly. A military explanation for why Eudes was defeated so easily at Bordeaux, after having won 11 years earlier at Battle of Toulouse, was simple. At Toulouse, Eudes managed a basic surprise attack against an overconfident and unprepared foe, all of whose defensive works were aimed inward, while he attacked from the outside. The Arab cavalary never got a chance to mobilize and meet him in open battle. At Bordeaux, they did, and resulted in absolute devastation of Eudes army, almost all of whom were killed, with minimal losses to the Muslims. Eudes forces, like other European troops of that era, lacked stirrups, and therefore had no armoured cavalry. Virtually all of their troops were infantry. The Muslim heavy cavalry broke the Christian infantry in their first charge, and then simply slaughtered them at will as they broke and ran. The invading force then went on to devastate southern Gaul, preparing it for complete conquest. One of the major raiding parties advanced on Tours. A possible motive, according to the second continuator of Fredegar, was the riches of the Abbey of Saint Martin of Tours, the most prestigious and holiest shrine in western Europe at the time. Upon hearing this, Austrasia Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel, collected his army of an estimated 15-75,000 veterans, and marched south avoiding the old Roman roads hoping to take the Muslims by surprise.

Despite the great importance of this battle, its exact location remains unknown. Most historians assume that the two armies met each other where the rivers Clain and Vienne join between Tours and Poitiers.

Charles chose to begin the battle in a defensive, phalanx-like formation. According to the Arabian sources they drew up in a large square. Certainly, given the disparity between the armies, in that the Franks were mostly infantry, all without armour, against mounted and Arab armored or mailed horsemen, (the Berbers were less heavily protected) Charles Martel fought a brilliant defensive battle. In a place and time of his choosing, he met a far superior force, and defeated it.

For six days, the two armies watched each other with just minor skirmishes. The Muslims waited for their full strength to arrive, which it did, but they were still uneasy. No good general, and Abd er Rahman was one, liked to let his opponent pick the ground and conditions for battle -- and Martel had done both. Creasy says, and his theory is probably best, that the Muslims best strategic choice would have been to simply decline battle, depart with their loot, garrisoning the captured towns in southern Gaul, and return when they could force Martel to a battleground more to their liking, one that maximized the huge advantage they had of the first true "knights" mailed and amoured horsemen -- the Franks, without stirrups in wide use, had to depend on unarmoured foot soldiers. Martel gambled everything that Abd er Rahman would in the end feel compelled to battle, and to go on and loot Tours. Neither of them wanted to attack. The Franks were well dressed for the cold, and had the terrain advantage. The Arabs were not as prepared for the intense cold, but did not want to attack what they thought might be a numerically superior Frankish army. (most historians believe it was not) Essentially, the Arabs wanted the Franks to come out in the open, while the Franks, formed in a tightly packed defensive formation, wanted them to come uphill, into the trees, (negating at once some of the advantages of their cavalry). It became a waiting game, which Martel won. The fight commenced on the seventh day, as Abd er Rahman did not want to postpone the battle indefinitely.

Abd er Rahman trusted the tactical superiority of his cavalry, and had them charge repeatedly. This time the faith the Muslims had in their cavalry, armed with their long lances and swords which had brought them victory in previous battles, was not justified.

In one of the rare instances where medieval infantry stood up against cavalry charges, the disciplined Frankish soldiers withstood the assaults, though according to Arab sources, the Arab cavalry several times broke into the interior of the Frankish square. But despite this, Franks did not break, and it is probably best expressed by a translation of an Arab account of the battle from the Medieval Source Book: "And in the shock of the battle the men of the North seemed like North a sea that cannot be moved. Firmly they stood, one close to another, forming as it were a bulwark of ice; and with great blows of their swords they hewed down the Arabs. Drawn up in a band around their chief, the people of the Austrasians carried all before them. Their tireless hands drove their swords down to the breasts of the foe."

It might have been different, however, had the Muslim forces remained under control. According to Muslim accounts of the battle, in the midst of the fighting on the second day, scouts from the Franks began to raid the camp and supply train (including slaves and other plunder). A large portion of the army broke off and raced back to their camp to save their plunder. What appeared to be a retreat soon became one. While attempting to restore order to his men, who had managed to break into the defensive square, Abd er Rahman was surrounded by Franks and killed.

According to a Frankish source, the battle lasted one day. Frankish histories claim that when the rumor went through the Arab army that Frankish cavalry threatened the booty they had taken from Bordeaux, (Charles supposedly had sent scouts to cause chaos in the Muslim base camp, and free as many of the slaves as possible, hoping to draw off part of his foe, it succeeded beyond his wildest dreams), many of the Muslim Cavalry returned to their camp. This, to the rest of the Muslim army, appeared to be a full-scale retreat, and soon it was one. Both histories agree that while attempting to stop the retreat, Abd er Rahman became surrounded, which led to his death, and the Muslims returned to their camp.

The next day, when the Muslims did not renew the battle, the Franks feared an ambush. Only after extensive reconnaissance by Frankish soldiers of the Muslim camp was it discovered that the Muslims had retreated during the night.

The Arab army retreated south over the Pyrenees. Charles earned his nickname Martel, meaning hammer, in this battle. He continued to drive the Muslims from France in subsequent years. After Eudes died, who had been forced to acknowledge, albeit reservedly, the suzerainty of Charles in 719, his son wished independence. Though Charles wished to unite the duchy directly to himself and went there to elicit the proper homage of the Aquitainians, the nobility proclaimed Odo's son, Hunold, whose dukedom Charles recognised when the Arabs invaded Provence the next year. Hunold, who originally resisted acknowledging Charles as overlord, had no choice when the Muslims returned.

In 736 the Caliphate launched another massive invasion -- this time by sea. This naval Arab invasion was headed by Abdul Rahman's son. It landed in Narbonne in 736 and took Arles. Charles, the conflict with Hunold put aside, descended on the Proven�al strongholds of the Muslims. In 736, he retook Montfrin and Avignon, and Arles and Aix-en-Provence with the help of Liutprand, King of the Lombards. N�mes, Agde, and B�ziers, held by Isalm since 725, fell to him and their fortresses destroyed. He smashed a Muslim force at the River Berre, and prepared to meet their primary invasion force at Narbonne. He defeated a mighty host outside of that city, using for the first time, heavy cavalry of his own, which he used in coordination with his planax. He crushed the Muslim army, though outnumbered, but failed to take the city. Provence, however, he successfully rid of its foreign occupiers.

Notable about these campaigns was Charles' incorporation, for the first time, of heavy cavalry with stirrups to augment his phalanx. His ability to coordinate infantry and cavalry veterans was unequaled in that era and enabled him to face superior numbers of invaders, and decisively defeat them again and again. Some historians believe Narbonne in particular was as imporant a victory for Christian Europe as Tours. Charles was that rarest of commonities in the dark ages: a brilliant stategic general, who also was a tactical commander par excellance, able in the crush and heat of battle to adapt his plans to his foes forces and movement -- and amazingly, defeated them repeatedly, especially when, as at Tours, they were far superior in men and weaponry, and at Berre and Narbonne, when they were superior in numbers of brave fighting men. Charles had the last quality which defines genuine greatness in a military commander: he foresaw the dangers of his foes, and prepared for them with care; he used ground, time, place, and fierce loyalty of his troops to offset his foes superior weaponry and tactics; third, he adapted, again and again, to the enemy on the battlefield, cooly shifting to compensate for the foreseen and unforeseeable.

The importance of these campaigns, Tours and the later campaigns of 736-7 in putting an end to Muslim bases in Gaul, and any immediate ability to expand Islamic influence in Europe, cannot be overstated. Gibbons and his generation of historians, and the majority of modern experts agree with them that they were unquestionably decisive in world history. Despite these victories, the Arabs remained in control of Narbonne and Septimania for another 27 years, but could not expand further than that. The treaties reached earlier with the local population stood firm and were further consolidated in 734 when the governor of Narbonne, Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri, concluded agreements with several towns on common defense arrangements against the encroachments of Charles Martel, who had systematically brought the south to heel as he extended his domains. He believed, and rightly so, that it was vital to keep the Muslims in Iberia, and not allow them a foothold in Gaul itself. Though he won the battle of Narbonne when the army there came out to meet him, Charles failed in his attempt to take Narbonne by siege in 737, when the city was jointly defended by its Muslim Arab and Christian Visigoth citizens. It was left to his son, Pippin the short, to force the city's surrender, in 759, and to drive the Arabs completely back to Iberia, and bring Narbonne into the Frankish Domains. His Grandson, Charlamagne, became the first Christian ruler to actually begin what would be called the Reconquista from Europe proper. In the east of the peninsula the Frankish emperors established the Marca Hispanica across the Pyrenees in part of what today is Catalonia, reconquering Girona in 785 and Barcelona in 801. This formed a buffer zone against Islam across the Pyrenees.

Tours in history

In Western history

Christian contemporaries, from Bede to Theophanes carefully recorded the battle and were keen to spell out what they saw as its implications. Later scholars, such as Edward Gibbon, would contend that had Martel fallen, the Moors would have easily conquered a divided Europe. Gibbon wrote that "A victorious line of march had been prolonged above a thousand miles from the rock of Gibraltar to the banks of the Loire; the repetition of an equal space would have carried the Saracens to the confines of Poland and the Highlands of Scotland; the Rhine is not more impassable than the Nile or Euphrates, and the Arabian fleet might have sailed without a naval combat into the mouth of the Thames. Perhaps the interpretation of the Qur'an would now be taught in the schools of Oxford, and her pulpits might demonstrate to a circumcised people the sanctity and truth of the revelation of Muhammed." Certainly, the Islamic invasions were an enormous danger during the window of 721 from Toulouse to 737 at the Arab defeat at Narbonne. But the window was closing. The unified Caliphate collapsed into civil war in 750 at the Battle of the Zab which left the Umayyad dynasty literally wiped out except for the Princes who escaped to Africa, and then Iberia, where they established the Umayyad Emirate in opposition to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad.

Both ancient, mid, and modern historians agree that Martel was the father of western heavy cavalry, and literally stole the technoloy from his slain foe! He had no trouble using his enemies tools against them, no pride stopped him from seizing any advantage he could in defending his faith, his father's home and homeland, and his people, from what he saw was a danger that would destroy them if not checked. His foresight in moving to strike first, to stop them short of his "front door," reminds one of Winston Churchill's famous statement, that "it is better to fight in your neighbors back yard, than have to defend your own front door." In 5 short years, from the Battle of Tours, to the Battle of Narbonne, he fathered western heavy cavalry, and used it in conjunction with his planax with devastating effect.

In the modern era, Norwich, the most widely read authority on the Eastern Roman Empire, says the Franks halting Muslim Expansion at Tours literally preserved Christianity as we know it. A more realistic viewpoint may be found in Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels by Antonio Santosuosso, Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Western Ontario, and considered an expert historian in the era in dispute in this article. It was published in 2004, and has quite an interesting modern expert opinion on Charles Martel, Tours, and the subsequent campaigns against Rahman's successor in 736-737. Santosuosso makes a compelling case that these defeats of invading Muslim Armies, were at least as important as Tours in their defense of western Christianity, and the preservation of those Christian monastaries and centers of learning which ultimately led Europe out of the dark ages. He also makes a compelling case that while Tours was unquestionably of macrohistorical importance, the later battles were at least equally so. Both invading forces defeated in those campaigns had come to set up permanent outposts for expansion, and there can be no doubt that these three defeats combined broke the back of European expansion by Islam while the Caliphate was still united. While some modern assessments of the battle's impact have backed away from the extreme of Gibbon's position, Gibbons's conjecture is supported by other historians such as Edward Shepard Creasy and William E. Watson. Most modern historians such as Norwich and Santosuosso generally support the concept of Tours as a macrohistorical event favoring western civilization and Christianity . Military writers such as Robert W. Martin, "The Battle of Tours is still felt today", also argue that Tours was such a turning point in favor of western civilization and Christianity that its aftereffect remains to this day.

In Arab history

Contemporary Arab historians and chroniclers are much more interested in the second Umayyad siege Arab defeat at Constantinople in 718, which ended in a disastrous defeat. After the first Arab siege of Constantinople (674-678) ended in complete failure, the Arabs Umayyad Caliphate attempted a second decisive attack on the city. An 80,000 strong army led by Maslama, the brother of Caliph Umar II, crossed the Bosporus from Anatolia to besiege Constantinople by land, while a massive fleet of Arab war galleys, estimated between 1,800 and 2,000, sailed into the Sea of Marmara to the south of the city. Fortunately for the Byzantines, the great chain kept the fleet from entering the inner harbor, and the Arab galleys were unable to sail up the Bosporus as they were under constant attack and harassment by the Greek fleet, who used Greek fire to level the differences in numbers. (The Byzantine fleet was less than a third of the Arab, but Greek fire swiftly evened the numbers). Emperor Leo III was able to use the famed Walls of Constantinople to his advantage and the Arab army was unable to breach them. (it must be noted that Bulgar forces had come to the aid of the Byzantines, and constantly harassed the Muslim army, and definitely disrupted resupply to the point that much of the army was close to starvation by the time the siege was abandoned. Some Muslim historians have argued that had the Caliph recalled his armies from Europe to aid in the siege, the city might have been taken by land, despite the legendary walls - such a recall would have doubled the army laying siege, allowed a full attack while still beating off Bulgar forces attempting to end the siege by harassing the army from outside while the defenders held the walls.

Some contemporary historians argue that had the Arabs actually wished to conquer Europe they could easily have done so. Essentially these historians argue that the Arabs were not interested enough to mount a major invasion, because Northern Europe at that time was considered to be a socially, culturally and economically backward area with little to interest any invaders. Some western scholars, such as Bernard Lewis, agree with this stance, though they are in a minority.

This is also disputed by Arab histories of the period circa 722-850 which mentioned the Franks more than any other Christian people save the Byzantines, (The Arabian chronicles were compiled and translated into Spanish by Jos� Antonio Conde, in his "Historia de la Dominaci�n de los �rabes en Espa�a", published at Madrid in 1820, and in dealing specifically with this period, the Arab chronicles discuss the Franks as one of two non-Muslim Powers then concerning the Caliphate). Further, this is disputed by the records of the Islamic raids into India and other non-Muslim states for loot and converts. Given the great wealth in Christian shrines such as the one at Tours, Islamic expansion into that area would have been likely had it not been sharply defeated in 732, 736, and 737 by Martel, and internal strife in the Islamic world prevented later efforts. Other relevant evidence of the importance of this battle lies in Islamic expansion into all other regions of the old Roman Empire -- except for Europe, and what was retained by Byzantium, the Caliphate took all of the old Roman and Persian Empires. It is not likely Gaul would have been spared save by the campaigns by, and the loyalty of, Charles Martel's veteran Frankish Army. Finally, it ignores that 4 separate Emirs of al-Andalus, over a 25 year period used a Fatwa from the Caliph to levy troops from all provinces of Africa, Syria, and even Turkomens who were beginning conversion, to raise 4 huge invading armies, well supplied and equipped, with the intention of permanent expansion across the Pyrenees into Europe. No such later attempts however were made as conflict between the Umayyad Emirate of Iberia and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad prevented a unified assault on Europe.

Given the importance Arab histories of the time placed on the death of Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman and the defeat in Gaul, and the subsequent defeat and destruction of Muslim bases in what is now France, it seems reasonably certain that this battle did have macrohistorical importance in stopping westward Islamic expansion. Arab histories written during that period and for the next seven centuries make clear that Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi Abd al Rahman's defeat and death was regarded, and most scholars believe, as a catastrophe of major proportions. Their own words record it best: (translated from Arabic) "This deadly defeat of the Moslems, and the loss of the great leader and good cavalier, Abderrahman, took place in the hundred and fifteenth year." (Islamic Calendar) This, from the portion of the history of the Umayyad Caliphate, and the great Arab period of expansion, also translated into Spanish by Don Jose Antonio Conde, in his "Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabos en Espa�a," appears to put the importance of the Battle of Tours in macrohistorical perspective.

Contemporary analysis

Had Martel fallen at Tours the long term implications for European Christianity may have been devastating. His victory there, and in the following campaigns, may have literally saved Europe and Christianity as we know it, from conquest while the Caliphate was unified and able to mount such a conquest. Had the Franks fallen, no other power existed stopping Muslim conquest of Italy and the effective end of what would become the modern Catholic Church. In addition, Martel's incorporation of the stirrup and mailed cavalry into the Frankish army gave birth to the armoured Knights which would form the backbone of western armies for the next five centuries. But had Martel failed, there would have been no Charlemagne, no Holy Roman Empire or Papal States. The majority view argues that all these events occurred because Martel was able to contain Islam from expanding into Europe while it could. His son retook Narbonne, and his Grandson Charlamagne actually established the Marca Hispanica across the Pyrenees in part of what today is Catalonia, reconquering Girona in 785 and Barcelona in 801. This formed a permanent buffer zone against Islam, with Frankish strongholds in Iberia, which became the basis, along with the King of Asturias, named Pelayo (718-737, who started his fight against the Moors in the mountains of Covadonga 722) for the origins of the Reconquista until all of the Muslims were expelled from the Iberia.

No later Muslim attempts against Asturias or the Franks was made as conflict between what remained of the Umayyad Dynasty, (which was the Umayyad Emirate and then Caliphate of Iberia) and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad prevented a unified assault on Europe. It would be another 700 years before the Ottomans managed to invade Europe via the Balkans.

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The Battle Of Tours Shaped Europe’s Destiny

Luciano Anastasi
March 5, 2023
18 Min Read

Charles Martel at Battle of Tours, Great Chronicles of France

The Battle of Tours: Frankish Triumph against Muslim Invasion

In 732, the Frankish and Aquitanian forces, under the leadership of Charles Martel, clashed against the invading Muslim army of the Umayyad Caliphate in what became known as the Battle of Tours, or Poitiers, or the Highway of the Martyrs. The battle was a crucial moment in the Umayyad invasion of Gaul, and its outcome would shape the destiny of Western Europe for centuries to come.

The Franks and Aquitanians emerged victorious, dealing a decisive blow to the Umayyad forces. Although details of the battle remain unclear, it is believed that the Umayyads had a larger force and suffered more casualties. Notably, the Franks fought without heavy cavalry, a strategy that proved successful against the Umayyad’s cavalry-dependent tactics.

Uncertain Details of the Battle

The exact location and number of combatants in the Battle of Tours remain a mystery. Surviving sources offer little information beyond accounts of the victory. Most historians, however, agree that the battle was fought somewhere between the cities of Poitiers and Tours, in northern Aquitaine in western France, close to the border of the Frankish realm and the Duchy of Aquitaine under Odo the Great.

The Fall of Al-Ghafiqi and Muslim Retreat

During the battle, Abdul Rahman Al-Ghafiqi, the Umayyad governor of al-Andalus, led the Muslim army. However, Al-Ghafiqi was killed in combat, and the Umayyad forces withdrew after their defeat. The battle marked the beginning of the Frankish and Aquitanian domination of Western Europe, and its significance in shaping the destiny of the continent cannot be understated.

Battle of Tours Confirms Frankish Power

The Battle of Tours was an instrumental factor in curtailing the Islamization of Western Europe. Historians widely credit the Christian victory for halting the Umayyad invasion and for the establishment of Frankish power in the region. The battle laid the foundations for the Carolingian Empire, and Frankish domination of Western Europe would continue for the next century. The confirmation of their power marked a turning point in Western history, one that was influenced by the outcome of the Battle of Tours.

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Background: The Umayyad Conquests in Europe

In 711, the Umayyad invasion of the Christian Visigothic Kingdom of the Iberian Peninsula marked the beginning of two decades of Umayyad conquests in Europe. These military campaigns extended to the former provinces of the Roman Empire, in Gaul. The Umayyad forces made their way northward into Aquitaine and Burgundy, engaging in major battles at Bordeaux and a raid on Autun.

The Battle of Tours

The Battle of Tours is widely regarded as a pivotal event in Western European history. It is believed to have halted the northward advance of Umayyad forces and prevented the Islamization of Western Europe. The location of the battle is assumed to be where the rivers Clain and Vienne join between Tours and Poitiers. The number of troops in each army remains a subject of debate among historians.

The Strength of the Armies

According to the Mozarabic Chronicle of 754, the Franks, who were the forces of Austrasia, was greater in number and formidably armed. They killed the Umayyad king, Abd ar-Rahman. However, virtually all Western sources disagree, estimating the Franks at less than half the Muslim force. Some historians believe that the total Muslim force, counting the outlying raiding parties that rejoined the main body before Tours, outnumbered the Franks.

Drawing on non-contemporary Muslim sources, some historians describe the Umayyad forces as 80,000 strong or more. However, estimates of what the land was able to support and what Martel could have raised from his realm and supported during the campaign suggest that the strength of the armies may have been much smaller. Modern historians estimate the Umayyad forces at Tours at between 20,000–80,000, while others argue that estimates that the Umayyads had over fifty thousand troops (and the Franks even more) are logistically impossible.

Casualties and Aftermath

The losses sustained by each army during the battle remain unknown. Chroniclers later claimed that Charles Martel’s force lost about 1,500, while the Umayyad force suffered massive casualties of up to 375,000 men. However, these same casualty figures were recorded in the Liber Pontificalis for Duke Odo the Great’s victory at the Battle of Toulouse in 721. The Vita Pardulfi, written in the middle of the eighth century, reports that after the battle, Abd-al-Rahman’s forces burned and looted their way through the Limousin on their way back to Al-Andalus, which implies that they were not destroyed to the extent imagined on the Continuations of Fredegar.

Overall, the Battle of Tours remains a subject of debate among historians. While it is widely believed to have halted the northward advance of Umayyad forces and prevented the Islamization of Western Europe, the exact strength of the armies and the losses sustained remains uncertain. However, the battle’s significance in shaping the course of Western European history is undeniable.

Clash of Empires at Tours

The Saracen Army outside Paris, 730-32 AD

The Umayyads – A Mighty Empire

In the 8th century, the Umayyad dynasty was the first dynasty of Sunni caliphs that emerged after the reign of the Rashidun Caliphs. Under their leadership, the Umayyad Caliphate had become a vast empire and one of the world’s foremost military powers. They had successfully defeated and absorbed the Sasanian Empire and conquered much of the Byzantine Empire, including Syria, Armenia, and North Africa. The Umayyad armies had pushed east across Persia and west across North Africa through the late 7th century. At the time of the Battle of Tours, the Umayyad Caliphate was at the height of its power.

The Franks – The Emerging Empire

During Charles Martel’s tenure as commander-in-chief of the Franks, the Frankish realm had become the foremost military power in western Europe. This realm consisted of north and eastern France, most of western Germany, and the Low Countries. The Frankish realm had begun to progress towards becoming the first real imperial power in western Europe since the fall of Rome. Despite its power, it continued to struggle against external forces such as the Saxons, Frisians, and other opponents such as the Basque-Aquitanians led by Odo the Great (Old French: Eudes), Duke over Aquitaine, and Vasconia.

The Umayyad Conquest of Septimania

In 719, Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani led Umayyad troops to overrun Septimania, the southernmost region of the Frankish kingdom, as part of their expansion campaign up the Iberian Peninsula. Al-Samh established his capital in Narbonne, or Arbūna as the Moors called it and quickly subdued the unresisting cities of Alet, Béziers, Agde, Lodève, Maguelonne, and Nîmes that were still controlled by Visigothic counts.

The Battle of Toulouse

The Umayyad campaign into Aquitaine suffered a temporary setback at the Battle of Toulouse, where Duke Odo the Great broke the siege of Toulouse, taking Al-Samh ibn Malik’s forces by surprise. Despite this defeat, Moorish forces based in Narbonne continued to strike eastwards, reaching as far as Autun in Burgundy in 725.

The Alliance with Berber Commander Uthman ibn Naissa

Threatened by both the Umayyads in the south and the Franks in the north, Duke Odo allied himself with the Berber commander Uthman ibn Naissa, also known as Munuza, the deputy governor of what would later become Catalonia. To seal the alliance, Uthman married Odo’s daughter, and Moorish raids across the Pyrenees, Odo’s southern border, ceased. However, the next year, Uthman killed the bishop of Urgell Nambaudus and detached himself from his Arab masters in Cordova. Abdul Raḥman sent an expedition to crush his revolt, then directed his attention against Uthman’s ally Odo.

The Battle of the River Garonne

Odo collected his army at Bordeaux but was defeated, and the city was plundered. During the following Battle of the River Garonne, the Chronicle of 754 recorded that “God alone knows the number of the slain”. The Chronicle continued, stating that the invading forces “pierced through the mountains, trampled over rough and level ground, plundered far into the country of the Franks, and smote all with the sword, insomuch that when Eudo came to battle with them at the River Garonne, he fled.”

Odo’s Appeal to the Franks

Despite the heavy losses, Odo reorganized his troops and gave the Frankish leader notice of the impending danger to his realm. He appealed to the Franks for assistance, which Charles Martel granted only after Odo agreed to submit to Frankish authority. The Umayyads were not aware of the true strength of the Franks, and the Arab chronicles of the time show that awareness of the Franks as a growing military power only came after the Battle of Tours.

The Umayyad Advance toward the Loire

In 732, the Umayyad advance force was proceeding north towards the Loire River, having outpaced their supply train and a large part of their army. After easily destroying all resistance in that part of Gaul, the invading army split into several raiding parties while the main body advanced more slowly. The Umayyads delayed their campaign late in the year because the army needed to live off the land as they advanced, waiting until the wheat harvest was ready and stored.

The Battle of Tours Begins: Charles' Surprising Tactics

Charles Martel in the Battle of Tours

In the year 732, the Muslim forces of the Umayyad Caliphate were invading Gaul, with the intention of conquering it for Islam. However, they were caught off guard by a large force blocking their path to Tours. This force was led by Charles Martel, who had planned the attack with the hope of achieving total surprise. Charles decided not to attack immediately and instead fought in a defensive, phalanx-like formation.

The Skirmishes and the Wait for Reinforcements

For seven days, the two armies engaged in minor skirmishes. The Umayyads were waiting for their full strength to arrive. Despite being a proven commander, ‘Abd-al-Raḥmân had been outmaneuvered, and he had allowed Charles to concentrate his forces and pick the field of battle. Charles had used the trees and forest to screen his true numbers, making it impossible for the Umayyads to judge the size of his army. While many historians have believed that the Franks were outnumbered, some sources disagree with that assertion.

Charles’ Infantry, Battle Tactics, and Preparation

Charles’ infantry was his best hope for victory. They were seasoned and battle-hardened, having fought with him for years. In addition to his army, Charles had levies of militia that had not seen significant military use except for gathering food and harassing the Muslim army. He had been preparing for this confrontation since the Battle of Toulouse a decade earlier. Charles had made the best of a bad situation. Though allegedly outnumbered and without any heavy cavalry, he had tough, battle-hardened infantrymen who believed in him implicitly. Charles had taken out a large loan from the Pope to train and maintain a full-size army largely composed of professional infantry. Moreover, these infantrymen were heavily armed and dressed for the cold.

The Waiting Game and the Start of the Battle

Charles correctly assumed that ‘Abd-al-Raḥmân would feel compelled to give battle and move on to try to loot Tours. Abd-al-Raḥmân felt he had to sack Tours, which meant he had to go through the Frankish army on the hill in front of him. Charles’ decision to stay in the hills proved crucial, as it forced the Umayyad cavalry to charge uphill and through trees, diminishing their effectiveness. The battle eventually became a waiting game, with the Muslims not wanting to attack an army that could possibly be numerically superior and wanting the Franks to come out into the open. The Franks formed up a thick defensive formation and waited for them to charge uphill. Finally, on the seventh day, the battle began as Abd-al-Raḥmân did not want to wait any longer, with winter approaching.

Tactical Superiority of Cavalry vs Disciplined Infantry

In October 732, the Battle of Tours was fought between the Muslim forces of the Umayyad Caliphate led by Abdul Rahman Al-Ghafiqi and the Frankish and Aquitanian forces under the leadership of Charles Martel. Al-Ghafiqi, who trusted in the tactical superiority of his cavalry, had them charge repeatedly throughout the day. The disciplined Frankish soldiers withstood the assaults, although according to Arab sources, the Arab cavalry broke into the Frankish square several times. Despite this, the Franks did not break. The well-trained Frankish soldiers accomplished what was not thought possible at that time: infantry withstanding a heavy cavalry charge.

Contemporary Accounts of the Battle of Tours

According to the Mozarabic Chronicle of 754, the battle between the Muslim and Frankish forces took place after a week of tormenting each other with raids. The northern peoples remained as immobile as a wall, holding together like a glacier in the cold regions, and annihilated the Arabs with the sword. The people of Austrasia killed the king, Abd ar-Rahman, when they found him, striking him in the chest. Suddenly, within sight of the countless tents of the Arabs, the Franks despicably sheathed their swords postponing the fight until the next day since night had fallen during the battle. The Europeans rose from their own camp at dawn and saw the tents and canopies of the Arabs all arranged just as they had appeared the day before. Not knowing that they were empty and thinking that inside them there were Saracen forces ready for battle, they sent officers to reconnoiter and discovered that all the Ishmaelite troops had left. They had indeed fled silently by night in tight formation, returning to their own country.

Charles Martel’s Family Account of the Battle of Tours

For the fourth book of the Continuations of Fredegar’s Chronicle, Charles Martel’s family composed a stylized summary of the battle. According to this account, Prince Charles boldly drew up his battle lines against the Arabs, and with Christ’s help, he overturned their tents and hastened to battle to grind them small in slaughter. King Abdirama was killed, and he destroyed them, driving forth the army, he fought and won. Thus did the victor triumph over his enemies. This source details further that “he (Charles Martel) came down upon them like a great man of battle”. It goes on to say Charles “scattered them like the stubble”.

Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People

It is thought that Bede’s Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Book V, Chapter XXIV) includes a reference to the Battle of Tours. According to the text, a dreadful plague of Saracens ravaged France with miserable slaughter, but not long after that country received the punishment due to their wickedness.

Charles Martel's Strategic Victory

Charles Martel fighting the Saracens at Tours-Poitiers in 732, Great Chronicles of France

The Battle of Tours-Poitiers in 732 was a turning point in European history. Charles Martel’s victory over the Umayyad army halted the Muslim advance into Europe, and the battle is considered one of the most important in world history. This analysis will examine the strategic and tactical decisions made by Charles Martel and ‘Abd-al-Raḥmân leading up to the battle, and how these decisions impacted the outcome.

‘Abd-al-Raḥmân’s Tactical Failures

Despite being a skilled general, ‘Abd-al-Raḥmân made two key mistakes before the battle. Firstly, he underestimated the strength of the Frankish army and did not assess their capabilities before invading. Secondly, he failed to scout the movements of the Frankish army, which led to the Muslim army being burdened with booty and suffering casualties before the battle began. Weaker opponents were not bypassed, which would have allowed the Muslim army to focus on the real power in Europe and partially pick the battlefield. While leaving enemies in your rear is generally unwise, the Mongols proved that bypassing weaker foes to eliminate the strongest first can be a devastatingly effective mode of invasion. ‘Abd-al-Raḥmân’s failure to adequately scout Gaul was disastrous and disadvantaged the Muslim army in the battle.

Both Western and Muslim histories agree that the battle was hard-fought, with the Umayyad heavy cavalry breaking into the square. The Franks, however, was in formation and still strongly resisting. Charles could not afford to stand idly by while Frankish territories were threatened, and his men were enraged by the utter devastation of the Aquitanians and wanted to fight. Charles probably made the best decision he could in waiting until his enemies least expected him to intervene and then marching by stealth to catch them by surprise at a battlefield of his choosing. It is probable that Charles and his own men did not realize the seriousness of the battle they had fought. Few battles are remembered over 1,000 years after they are fought, but the Battle of Tours-Poitiers is an exception. Charles Martel turned back a Muslim raid that had it been allowed to continue, might have conquered Gaul.

The Importance of Charles Martel’s Victory

Had Charles failed, there was no remaining force to protect Western Europe. The battle may justly be reckoned among those few battles of which a contrary event would have essentially varied the drama of the world in all its subsequent scenes. Strategically and tactically, Charles probably made the best decision he could in waiting until his enemies least expected him to intervene and then marching by stealth to catch them by surprise at a battlefield of his choosing. Roger Collins disputes interpretations of ever-expanding Umayyad forces, reminding their internal cohesion problems and the capture of Autun in 725 when the Burgundian stronghold was captured and sacked, then just abandoned by Anbasa’s raiding forces. Charles Martel’s victory was crucial in halting the Muslim advance into Europe and shaping the course of European history.

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Charles Martel’s victory at the Battle of Tours in 732 CE is one of the most significant events in the history of France. This momentous battle marked the end of the Umayyad conquest of Europe and secured the future of Christian Europe.

The Great Chronicles of France, a collection of historical texts that document the country’s history, provide valuable insights into Charles Martel’s life and his heroic deeds during the Battle of Tours. According to these chronicles, Charles Martel was a strong and charismatic leader who united the Frankish tribes against the invading Muslim army.

The chronicles also describe the battle in vivid detail, highlighting Charles Martel’s tactical genius and bravery. They recount how the Muslim army, led by the Emir Abd al-Rahman, outnumbered Charles Martel’s forces, but Charles managed to outsmart them by selecting a favorable terrain and using his cavalry to charge into the enemy’s flank.

The Great Chronicles of France also depict Charles Martel as a deeply religious man who saw his victory as a divine intervention. They note that he gave thanks to God for his triumph and vowed to use his power to defend Christianity and protect his people.

Wikipedia Contributors. (2023, February 19). Battle of Tours . Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tours

Collins, R. (2004). Visigothic Spain 409–711. Blackwell Publishing
Fouracre, P. (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Routledge
Gibbon, E. (1788). The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. W. Strahan & T. Cadell
McKitterick, R. (1983). The Frankish Kingdoms under the Carolingians, 751–987. Longman
Oman, C. (1924). A history of the art of war in the middle ages, Vol. 1. Methuen & Co

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England’s Dark Ages: A Time Of Change
Medieval England

Umayyad Caliphate

Battle of Tours

From the caliphate's north-western African bases, a series of raids on coastal areas of the Visigothic Kingdom paved the way to the permanent occupation of most of Iberia by the Umayyads (starting in 711), and on into south-eastern Gaul (last stronghold at Narbonne in 759).

The Battle of Tours was fought on 10 October 732, and was an important battle during the Umayyad invasion of Gaul. It resulted in the victory for the Frankish and Aquitanian forces, led by Charles Martel, over the invading forces of the Umayyad Caliphate, led by Abdul Rahman Al-Ghafiqi, governor of al-Andalus.

Notably, the Frankish troops apparently fought without heavy cavalry. Al-Ghafiqi was killed in combat, and the Umayyad army withdrew after the battle. The battle helped lay the foundations of the Carolingian Empire and Frankish domination of western Europe for the next century.

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Ch. 8 The Middle Ages in Europe

Charles martel and pepin the short, learning objective.

Explain the significance of Charles Martel’s victory at the Battle of Tours
Charles Martel was the de facto ruler of Francia (France) who defeated the Umayyad Caliphate in the Battle of Tours.
The Battle of Tours was historically significant because it stopped the advance of the Muslim empire, which had successfully conquered much of Europe; many historians believe that had Charles failed, no power in Europe would have been able to halt Islamic expansion.
Charles divided his land between his sons Carloman and Pepin.
After Carloman retired to religious life, Pepin became the sole ruler of the Franks and continued to consolidate and expand his power to become one of the most powerful and successful rulers of his time.

Donation of Pepin

Donations bestowed by Pepin the Short that provided a legal basis for the formal organizing of the “Papal States,” which inaugurated papal temporal rule over civil authorities.

Battle of Tours

A battle that pitted Frankish and Burgundian forces under Charles Martel against an army of the Umayyad Caliphate led by ‘Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, Governor-General of al-Andalus. The latter was defeated, thus ending the expansion of the Muslim empire into Europe.

Umayyad Caliphate

The second of the four major Arab caliphates established after the death of Muhammad; continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb, and the Iberian Peninsula into the Muslim world, making it the fifth largest empire in history in both area and proportion of the world’s population.

Historically known first as a group of Germanic tribes that inhabited the land between the Lower and Middle Rhine in the 3rd century CE, and second as the people of Gaul who merged with the Gallo-Roman populations during succeeding centuries, passing on their name to modern-day France and becoming part of the heritage of the modern French people.

Charles Martel

Charles Martel (688-741) was a Frankish statesman and military leader who, as Duke and Prince of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace, was de facto ruler of Francia from 718 until his death. The son of the Frankish statesman Pepin of Herstal and a noblewoman named Alpaida, Charles successfully asserted his claims to dominance as successor to his father, who was the power behind the throne in Frankish politics. Continuing and building on his father’s work, he restored centralized government in Francia and began the series of military campaigns that re-established the Franks as the undisputed masters of all Gaul.

Apart from his military endeavors, Charles is considered to be a founding figure of the European Middle Ages. Skilled as an administrator as well as a warrior, he is credited with a seminal role in the emerging responsibilities of the knights of courts, and so in the development of the Frankish system of feudalism. Moreover, Charles—a great patron of Saint Boniface—made the first attempt at reconciliation between the Franks and the papacy. Pope Gregory III, whose realm was being menaced by the Lombards, offered Charles the Roman consulship in exchange for becoming the defender of the Holy See, but Charles declined.

Although Charles never assumed the title of king, he divided Francia, as a king would have, between his sons Carloman and Pepin. The latter became the first of the Carolingians, the family of Charles Martel, to become king. Charles’s grandson, Charlemagne, extended the Frankish realms to include much of the West, and became the first emperor in the West since the fall of Rome. Therefore, on the basis of his achievements, Charles is seen as laying the groundwork for the Carolingian Empire. In summing up the man, Gibbon wrote that Charles was “the hero of the age,” whereas Guerard described him as being the “champion of the Cross against the Crescent.”

Battles of Tours

After working to establish a unity in Gaul, Charles’s attention was called to foreign conflicts; dealing with the Islamic advance into Western Europe was a foremost concern. Arab and Berber Islamic forces had conquered Spain (711), crossed the Pyrenees (720), seized a major dependency of the Visigoths (721–725), and after intermittent challenges, under Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, Governor-General of al-Andalus, advanced toward Gaul and on Tours, “the holy town of Gaul.” In October 732, the army of the Umayyad Caliphate, led by Al Ghafiqi, met Frankish and Burgundian forces under Charles in an area between the cities of Tours and Poitiers (modern north-central France), leading to a decisive, historically important Frankish victory known as the Battle of Tours.

Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi was killed, and Charles subsequently extended his authority in the south. Charles further took the offensive after Tours, destroying fortresses at Agde, Béziers, and Maguelonne, and engaging Islamic forces at Nimes, though ultimately failing to recover Narbonne (737) or to fully reclaim the Visigoth’s Narbonensis. He thereafter made significant external gains against fellow Christian realms, establishing Frankish control over Bavaria, Alemannia, and Frisia, and compelling some of the Saxon tribes to offer tribute (738). Details of the Battle of Tours, including its exact location and the number of combatants, cannot be determined from accounts that have survived. Notably, the Frankish troops won the battle without cavalry.

Charles’s victory is widely believed to have stopped the northward advance of Umayyad forces from the Iberian Peninsula, and to have preserved Christianity in Europe during a period when Muslim rule was overrunning the remains of the old Roman and Persian empires.

Ninth-century chroniclers, who interpreted the outcome of the battle as divine judgment in Charles’s favor, gave him the nickname Martellus (“The Hammer”). Later Christian chroniclers and pre-20th-century historians praised Charles Martel as the champion of Christianity, characterizing the battle as the decisive turning point in the struggle against Islam, a struggle which preserved Christianity as the religion of Europe. According to modern military historian Victor Davis Hanson, “most of the 18th and 19th century historians, like Gibbon, saw Poitiers (Tours), as a landmark battle that marked the high tide of the Muslim advance into Europe.” Leopold von Ranke felt that “Poitiers (Tours) was the turning point of one of the most important epochs in the history of the world.”

There is little dispute that the battle helped lay the foundations of the Carolingian Empire and Frankish domination of Europe for the next century. Most historians agree that “the establishment of Frankish power in western Europe shaped that continent’s destiny and the Battle of Tours confirmed that power.”

Steuben’s Bataille de Poitiers. A painting of the Battle of Tours by Charles de Steuben, 1834–1837.

Pepin the Short

Charles Martel divided his realm between his sons Pepin, called Pepin the Short, and Carloman. Succeeding his father as the Mayor of the Palace in 741, Pepin reigned over Francia jointly with his elder brother Carloman. Pepin ruled in Neustria, Burgundy, and Provence, while Carloman established himself in Austrasia, Alemannia, and Thuringia. The brothers were active in subjugating revolts led by the Bavarians, Aquitanians, Saxons, and Alemanni in the early years of their reign. In 743, they ended the Frankish interregnum by choosing Childeric III, who was to be the last Merovingian monarch, as figurehead king of the Franks.

Being well disposed towards the church and papacy on account of their ecclesiastical upbringing, Pepin and Carloman continued their father’s work supporting Saint Boniface in reforming the Frankish church and evangelizing the Saxons. After Carloman, who was an intensely pious man, retired to religious life in 747, Pepin became the sole ruler of the Franks. He suppressed a revolt led by his half-brother Grifo, and succeeded in becoming the undisputed master of all Francia. Giving up pretense, Pepin then forced Childeric into a monastery and had himself proclaimed king of the Franks with the support of Pope Zachary in 751. The decision was not supported by all members of the Carolingian family, and Pepin had to put down another revolt led by Grifo and by Carloman’s son, Drogo.

As king, Pepin embarked on an ambitious program to expand his power. He reformed the legislation of the Franks and continued the ecclesiastical reforms of Boniface. Pepin also intervened in favor of the papacy of Stephen II against the Lombards in Italy. He was able to secure several cities, which he then gave to the pope as part of the Donation of Pepin. This formed the legal basis for the Papal States in the Middle Ages. The Byzantines, keen to make good relations with the growing power of the Frankish empire, gave Pepin the title of Patricius. In wars of expansion, Pepin conquered Septimania from the Islamic Umayyads, and subjugated the southern realms by repeatedly defeating Waifer of Aquitaine and his Basque troops, after which the Basque and Aquitanian lords saw no option but to pledge loyalty to the Franks. Pepin was, however, troubled by the relentless revolts of the Saxons and the Bavarians. He campaigned tirelessly in Germany, but the final subjugation of these tribes was left to his successors.

Pepin died in 768 and was succeeded by his sons Charlemagne and Carloman. Although unquestionably one of the most powerful and successful rulers of his time, Pepin’s reign is largely overshadowed by that of his more famous son.

Boundless World History. Authored by : Boundless. Located at : https://www.boundless.com/world-history/textbooks/boundless-world-history-textbook/ . License : CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike

Pulse of Pride

Historical Battlefields Tour – Visiting 10 Hauntingly Significant Sites of World History

Posted: May 6, 2024 | Last updated: May 7, 2024

<p><strong>Embarking on a historical battlefield tour is like stepping into the pages of history. These hallowed grounds, where pivotal moments unfolded, offer profound insights into our past. From the ancient fields of Europe to the significant sites of American history, each destination tells a story of bravery, strategy, and the course of human events. The Green Voyage guide takes you through ten of the world’s most significant battlefields, where history was written in the trenches and on the front lines.</strong></p>

Embarking on a historical battlefield tour is like stepping into the pages of history. These hallowed grounds, where pivotal moments unfolded, offer profound insights into our past. From the ancient fields of Europe to the significant sites of American history, each destination tells a story of bravery, strategy, and the course of human events. The Green Voyage guide takes you through ten of the world’s most significant battlefields, where history was written in the trenches and on the front lines.

<p><span>The Battle of Gettysburg, fought from July 1 to July 3, 1863, is one of American history’s most significant and defining moments. This battle, marking the turning point of the American Civil War, witnessed the Union Army’s decisive victory over Confederate forces. Fought in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, it involved the largest number of casualties in the entire war.</span></p> <p><span>It concluded with the famous Gettysburg Address by President Abraham Lincoln. The battle’s strategic outcome halted the northward advance of General Robert E. Lee’s army and set the stage for the Union’s ultimate victory. Today, Gettysburg is a symbol of national unity and reconciliation, its fields and monuments serving as solemn reminders of the cost of war and the value of peace.</span></p> <p><b>Interesting Fact: </b><span>The Battle of Gettysburg was a turning point in the American Civil War.</span></p> <p><b>Insider’s Tip: </b><span>Visit the Gettysburg National Military Park Museum for an in-depth understanding.</span></p> <p><b>Best Time to Travel: </b><span>Early summer or fall for pleasant weather.</span></p> <p><b>How To Get There: </b><span>Fly into Harrisburg International Airport and drive to Gettysburg.</span></p> <p><b>Notable Dates: </b><span>The battle occurred from July 1-3, 1863; annual reenactments are held.</span></p>

Gettysburg, USA

The Battle of Gettysburg, fought from July 1 to July 3, 1863, is one of American history’s most significant and defining moments. This battle, marking the turning point of the American Civil War, witnessed the Union Army’s decisive victory over Confederate forces. Fought in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, it involved the largest number of casualties in the entire war. It concluded with the famous Gettysburg Address by President Abraham Lincoln. The battle’s strategic outcome halted the northward advance of General Robert E. Lee’s army and set the stage for the Union’s ultimate victory. Today, Gettysburg is a symbol of national unity and reconciliation, its fields and monuments serving as solemn reminders of the cost of war and the value of peace.

<p><span>The D-Day landings on June 6, 1944, in Normandy, represent one of the most monumental military operations in history and a pivotal moment in World War II. Known as Operation Overlord, this massive amphibious assault marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi occupation. Over 156,000 Allied troops, comprising American, British, Canadian, and other nationalities, stormed the beaches of Normandy in a coordinated effort involving sea, air, and land attacks.</span></p> <p><span>Despite heavy resistance and significant casualties, the bravery and determination of these forces led to the successful establishment of a vital foothold in France. This event, which involved meticulous planning and unprecedented cooperation among Allied nations, not only changed the course of the war but also demonstrated the power of unity and collective resolve in the face of tyranny.</span></p> <p><b>Interesting Fact: </b><span>D-Day landings in Normandy marked the beginning of the end of WWII in Europe.</span></p> <p><b>Insider’s Tip: </b><span>Visit the Caen Memorial Museum before exploring the beaches.</span></p> <p><b>Best Time to Travel: </b><span>Late spring or early fall.</span></p> <p><b>How To Get There: </b><span>Fly to Paris and then take a train or drive to Normandy.</span></p> <p><b>Notable Dates: </b><span>The D-Day anniversary is on June 6, with ceremonies and events.</span></p>

Normandy, France

The D-Day landings on June 6, 1944, in Normandy, represent one of the most monumental military operations in history and a pivotal moment in World War II. Known as Operation Overlord, this massive amphibious assault marked the beginning of the liberation of Western Europe from Nazi occupation. Over 156,000 Allied troops, comprising American, British, Canadian, and other nationalities, stormed the beaches of Normandy in a coordinated effort involving sea, air, and land attacks. Despite heavy resistance and significant casualties, the bravery and determination of these forces led to the successful establishment of a vital foothold in France. This event, which involved meticulous planning and unprecedented cooperation among Allied nations, not only changed the course of the war but also demonstrated the power of unity and collective resolve in the face of tyranny.

<p><span>The Battle of Waterloo, fought on June 18, 1815, near Brussels in present-day Belgium, is one of Europe’s most famous battles. This decisive conflict marked the end of Napoleon Bonaparte’s rule as the French Emperor and the termination of his Hundred Days return from exile. The battle pitted Napoleon’s French army against the Seventh Coalition forces, led by the Duke of Wellington and Prussian Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher.</span></p> <p><span>The intense and bloody battle concluded with a catastrophic defeat for the French, effectively ending Napoleon’s military career and leading to his second exile to Saint Helena. Waterloo is often cited for its tactical and strategic lessons and remains a key reference point in military history. Its outcome reshaped the political landscape of Europe, leading to a period of relative peace and the redrawing of the continent’s boundaries at the Congress of Vienna.</span></p> <p><b>Interesting Fact: </b><span>The Battle of Waterloo in 1815 saw the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte.</span></p> <p><b>Insider’s Tip: </b><span>Climb the Lion’s Mound for panoramic battlefield views.</span></p> <p><b>Best Time to Travel: </b><span>May to September for mild weather.</span></p> <p><b>How To Get There: </b><span>Fly into Brussels, take a short train ride, or drive to Waterloo.</span></p> <p><b>Notable Dates: </b><span>The battle was fought on June 18, 1815.</span></p>

Waterloo, Belgium

The Battle of Waterloo, fought on June 18, 1815, near Brussels in present-day Belgium, is one of Europe’s most famous battles. This decisive conflict marked the end of Napoleon Bonaparte’s rule as the French Emperor and the termination of his Hundred Days return from exile. The battle pitted Napoleon’s French army against the Seventh Coalition forces, led by the Duke of Wellington and Prussian Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. The intense and bloody battle concluded with a catastrophic defeat for the French, effectively ending Napoleon’s military career and leading to his second exile to Saint Helena. Waterloo is often cited for its tactical and strategic lessons and remains a key reference point in military history. Its outcome reshaped the political landscape of Europe, leading to a period of relative peace and the redrawing of the continent’s boundaries at the Congress of Vienna.

<p><span>The Gallipoli Campaign, fought between April 25, 1915, and January 9, 1916, in the Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey, was a significant episode of World War I. This ambitious operation, led by the Allies – primarily British, French, Australian, and New Zealand forces – aimed to secure the Dardanelles Strait and capture Constantinople (now Istanbul), the capital of the Ottoman Empire, an ally of the Central Powers.</span></p> <p><span>The campaign is particularly notable for its grueling and costly nature, with both sides enduring heavy casualties and harsh conditions. It became a defining moment in the national consciousness of Australia and New Zealand, marking the birth of their national identities and commemorating it annually on ANZAC Day.</span></p> <p><span>Despite the bravery and endurance of the troops, the campaign ended in a victory for the Ottoman Empire and a strategic failure for the Allies, with lasting military and political ramifications. The Gallipoli campaign is remembered for its tactical miscalculations, the endurance of soldiers in the face of adversity, and its impact on the course of the First World War.</span></p> <p><b>Interesting Fact: </b><span>Gallipoli was a major WWI campaign significant for Australian and New Zealand forces.</span></p> <p><b>Insider’s Tip: </b><span>Attend the Anzac Day dawn service for a moving experience.</span></p> <p><b>Best Time to Travel: </b><span>Spring or fall.</span></p> <p><b>How To Get There: </b><span>Fly to Istanbul, then take a domestic flight or drive to Gallipoli.</span></p> <p><b>Notable Dates: </b><span>Anzac Day on April 25th.</span></p>

Gallipoli, Turkey

The Gallipoli Campaign, fought between April 25, 1915, and January 9, 1916, in the Gallipoli peninsula in Turkey, was a significant episode of World War I. This ambitious operation, led by the Allies – primarily British, French, Australian, and New Zealand forces – aimed to secure the Dardanelles Strait and capture Constantinople (now Istanbul), the capital of the Ottoman Empire, an ally of the Central Powers. The campaign is particularly notable for its grueling and costly nature, with both sides enduring heavy casualties and harsh conditions. It became a defining moment in the national consciousness of Australia and New Zealand, marking the birth of their national identities and commemorating it annually on ANZAC Day. Despite the bravery and endurance of the troops, the campaign ended in a victory for the Ottoman Empire and a strategic failure for the Allies, with lasting military and political ramifications. The Gallipoli campaign is remembered for its tactical miscalculations, the endurance of soldiers in the face of adversity, and its impact on the course of the First World War.

<p><span>The Battle of Stalingrad, lasting from August 23, 1942, to February 2, 1943, stands as one of World War II’s most significant and brutal confrontations. Fought in the city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd), Soviet Union, this battle marked a turning point in the war against Nazi Germany. The ferocity of the fighting was unparalleled, with both sides engaged in close-quarters combat and enduring extreme conditions, including the harsh Russian winter.</span></p> <p><span>The Soviet Red Army, under General Zhukov, eventually encircled and defeated the German 6th Army, led by General Paulus, in a decisive victory. This battle not only shattered the myth of invincibility surrounding the German Wehrmacht but also led to a significant shift in the momentum of the war, with the Soviets taking the offensive. The battle’s scale, intensity, high human cost, and strategic significance have made it one of the most studied military engagements in history.</span></p> <p><span><strong>Interesting Fact:</strong> The Battle of Stalingrad was among the deadliest in history and a turning point in WWII.</span></p> <p><b>Insider’s Tip: </b><span>Visit the Mamayev Kurgan Memorial Complex.</span></p> <p><b>Best Time to Travel: </b><span>Late spring or early fall.</span></p> <p><b>How To Get There: </b><span>Fly to Moscow and then a domestic flight to Volgograd.</span></p> <p><b>Notable Dates: </b><span>The battle lasted from August 23, 1942, to February 2, 1943.</span></p>

Stalingrad (now Volgograd), Russia

The Battle of Stalingrad, lasting from August 23, 1942, to February 2, 1943, stands as one of World War II’s most significant and brutal confrontations. Fought in the city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd), Soviet Union, this battle marked a turning point in the war against Nazi Germany. The ferocity of the fighting was unparalleled, with both sides engaged in close-quarters combat and enduring extreme conditions, including the harsh Russian winter. The Soviet Red Army, under General Zhukov, eventually encircled and defeated the German 6th Army, led by General Paulus, in a decisive victory. This battle not only shattered the myth of invincibility surrounding the German Wehrmacht but also led to a significant shift in the momentum of the war, with the Soviets taking the offensive. The battle’s scale, intensity, high human cost, and strategic significance have made it one of the most studied military engagements in history.

Interesting Fact: The Battle of Stalingrad was among the deadliest in history and a turning point in WWII.

<p><span>The Battle of the Somme, fought from July 1 to November 18, 1916, remains one of the most harrowing and bloodiest battles in military history, emblematic of the brutal trench warfare that defined World War I. Initiated by the Allies to break through German lines and relieve pressure on the French at Verdun, it took place along the Somme River in France. The first day of battle saw the British Army suffer the most casualties in its history, reflecting the immense human cost of the conflict.</span></p> <p><span>Despite months of fighting and significant losses on both sides, the battle resulted in minimal territorial gain, exemplifying the futility and devastation of trench warfare. The Somme also saw the first use of tanks in warfare, signaling a shift in military tactics and technology. This battle, with its staggering loss of life and limited strategic success, has come to symbolize the immense human cost of war and the tragedy of a lost generation.</span></p> <p><b>Interesting Fact: </b><span>The Battle of the Somme in WWI is known for its high casualty rates.</span></p> <p><b>Insider’s Tip: </b><span>Visit the Thiepval Memorial to the Missing.</span></p> <p><b>Best Time to Travel: </b><span>Summer and early autumn.</span></p> <p><b>How To Get There: </b><span>Fly to Paris and then drive or take a train to the Somme region.</span></p> <p><b>Notable Dates: </b><span>The battle began on July 1, 1916.</span></p>

The Somme, France

The Battle of the Somme, fought from July 1 to November 18, 1916, remains one of the most harrowing and bloodiest battles in military history, emblematic of the brutal trench warfare that defined World War I. Initiated by the Allies to break through German lines and relieve pressure on the French at Verdun, it took place along the Somme River in France. The first day of battle saw the British Army suffer the most casualties in its history, reflecting the immense human cost of the conflict. Despite months of fighting and significant losses on both sides, the battle resulted in minimal territorial gain, exemplifying the futility and devastation of trench warfare. The Somme also saw the first use of tanks in warfare, signaling a shift in military tactics and technology. This battle, with its staggering loss of life and limited strategic success, has come to symbolize the immense human cost of war and the tragedy of a lost generation.

<p><span>The Battle of Hastings, fought on October 14, 1066, is one of the most defining events in English history. It saw the Norman forces under William, the Duke of Normandy, defeat King Harold II of England, leading to the Norman conquest of England. The battle was fought near the town of Hastings, in East Sussex, and was a pivotal moment that changed the course of English history.</span></p> <p><span>It brought significant cultural and political changes, including introducing Norman culture and the French language to England’s ruling class. The battle is famously depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry, which provides a visual record of the events leading up to and including the battle. The victory of William the Conqueror at Hastings led to his coronation as King of England. It marked the beginning of a new era in English history, profoundly influencing the country’s language, governance, and societal structures.</span></p> <p><b>Interesting Fact: </b><span>The Battle of Hastings in 1066 reshaped English history.</span></p> <p><b>Insider’s Tip: </b><span>Visit the nearby town of Battle, where the Abbey marks the battle site.</span></p> <p><b>Best Time to Travel: </b><span>Spring or summer.</span></p> <p><b>How To Get There: </b><span>Fly to London and then take a train or drive to Hastings.</span></p> <p><b>Notable Dates: </b><span>The battle occurred on October 14, 1066.</span></p>

Hastings, England

The Battle of Hastings, fought on October 14, 1066, is one of the most defining events in English history. It saw the Norman forces under William, the Duke of Normandy, defeat King Harold II of England, leading to the Norman conquest of England. The battle was fought near the town of Hastings, in East Sussex, and was a pivotal moment that changed the course of English history. It brought significant cultural and political changes, including introducing Norman culture and the French language to England’s ruling class. The battle is famously depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry, which provides a visual record of the events leading up to and including the battle. The victory of William the Conqueror at Hastings led to his coronation as King of England. It marked the beginning of a new era in English history, profoundly influencing the country’s language, governance, and societal structures.

<p><span>The Battle of Antietam, also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg, fought on September 17, 1862, during the American Civil War, is noted for being the bloodiest single-day battle in American history. It took place near Sharpsburg, Maryland, and Antietam Creek and saw Union forces under General George McClellan engage Confederate troops led by General Robert E. Lee. This battle was particularly significant as it halted Lee’s invasion of the North.</span></p> <p><span>The intense combat led to heavy casualties on both sides, concluding with no decisive victory. However, the battle’s outcome gave President Abraham Lincoln the opportunity he needed to announce his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which changed the character of the war. The Battle of Antietam is remembered for its staggering human cost and as a pivotal moment in the Civil War, marking a turning point in the Union’s favor.</span></p> <p><b>Interesting Fact: </b><span>The Battle of Antietam was the bloodiest single-day battle in American history.</span></p> <p><b>Insider’s Tip: </b><span>Take a guided tour for detailed insights into the battle.</span></p> <p><b>Best Time to Travel: </b><span>Spring or fall.</span></p> <p><b>How To Get There: </b><span>Fly into Washington D.C. and then drive to Antietam.</span></p> <p><b>Notable Dates: </b><span>The battle took place on September 17, 1862.</span></p>

Antietam, USA

The Battle of Antietam, also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg, fought on September 17, 1862, during the American Civil War, is noted for being the bloodiest single-day battle in American history. It took place near Sharpsburg, Maryland, and Antietam Creek and saw Union forces under General George McClellan engage Confederate troops led by General Robert E. Lee. This battle was particularly significant as it halted Lee’s invasion of the North. The intense combat led to heavy casualties on both sides, concluding with no decisive victory. However, the battle’s outcome gave President Abraham Lincoln the opportunity he needed to announce his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation, which changed the character of the war. The Battle of Antietam is remembered for its staggering human cost and as a pivotal moment in the Civil War, marking a turning point in the Union’s favor.

<p><span>The Battle of Little Bighorn, famously known as Custer’s Last Stand, was a significant engagement between the combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes against the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. Fought on June 25-26, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in Montana Territory, this battle became emblematic of the conflict between Native American tribes and the U.S. government over territorial rights and cultural autonomy.</span></p> <p><span>Led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, the U.S. cavalry forces were decisively defeated by the Native American warriors, under the leadership of Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and other tribal leaders. The battle was a substantial victory for the Native American forces but also marked a turning point that led to increased military efforts by the U.S. government against indigenous tribes. The Battle of Little Bighorn remains a symbol of Native American resistance and a subject of extensive analysis and historical significance.</span></p> <p><b>Interesting Fact: </b><span>The Battle of Little Bighorn was a significant Native American victory against the U.S. Army.</span></p> <p><b>Insider’s Tip: </b><span>Visit the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument.</span></p> <p><b>Best Time to Travel: </b><span>Summer.</span></p> <p><b>How To Get There: </b><span>Fly to Billings, Montana, and drive to the battlefield.</span></p> <p><b>Notable Dates: </b><span>The battle occurred on June 25-26, 1876.</span></p>

Little Bighorn, USA

The Battle of Little Bighorn, famously known as Custer’s Last Stand, was a significant engagement between the combined forces of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes against the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States Army. Fought on June 25-26, 1876, near the Little Bighorn River in Montana Territory, this battle became emblematic of the conflict between Native American tribes and the U.S. government over territorial rights and cultural autonomy. Led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, the U.S. cavalry forces were decisively defeated by the Native American warriors, under the leadership of Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and other tribal leaders. The battle was a substantial victory for the Native American forces but also marked a turning point that led to increased military efforts by the U.S. government against indigenous tribes. The Battle of Little Bighorn remains a symbol of Native American resistance and a subject of extensive analysis and historical significance.

<p><span>Ypres, a town in Belgium, became the focal point of several major battles during World War I, known collectively as the Battles of Ypres. These battles, particularly notable for the first large-scale use of chemical warfare, were characterized by their unprecedented brutality and the extensive use of trench warfare. The town and its surrounding areas saw some of the most prolonged and bloodiest fighting of the war, resulting in significant casualties on both sides.</span></p> <p><span>Ypres came to symbolize the horrors of World War I, with the landscape around the town being completely devastated by the constant shelling and warfare. Today, Ypres serves as a powerful reminder of the cost of war, with numerous memorials and cemeteries that pay tribute to the fallen. Among these, the Menin Gate Memorial bears the names of over 54,000 soldiers who died in the Ypres Salient and whose graves are unknown, making it a poignant site of remembrance and reflection.</span></p> <p><b>Interesting Fact: </b><span>Ypres was the site of several battles during WWI, known for the use of chemical warfare.</span></p> <p><b>Insider’s Tip: </b><span>Attend the Last Post ceremony at the Menin Gate.</span></p> <p><b>Best Time to Travel: </b><span>Late spring to early fall.</span></p> <p><b>How To Get There: </b><span>Fly into Brussels and take a train or drive to Ypres.</span></p> <p><b>Notable Dates: </b><span>The battles occurred between 1914 and 1918, with several key dates.</span></p>

Ypres, Belgium

Ypres, a town in Belgium, became the focal point of several major battles during World War I, known collectively as the Battles of Ypres. These battles, particularly notable for the first large-scale use of chemical warfare, were characterized by their unprecedented brutality and the extensive use of trench warfare. The town and its surrounding areas saw some of the most prolonged and bloodiest fighting of the war, resulting in significant casualties on both sides. Ypres came to symbolize the horrors of World War I, with the landscape around the town being completely devastated by the constant shelling and warfare. Today, Ypres serves as a powerful reminder of the cost of war, with numerous memorials and cemeteries that pay tribute to the fallen. Among these, the Menin Gate Memorial bears the names of over 54,000 soldiers who died in the Ypres Salient and whose graves are unknown, making it a poignant site of remembrance and reflection.

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Battle of Tours
De Re Militari - The Battle of Tours-Poitiers Revisited (Apr. 05, 2024) Battle of Tours, (October 732), victory won by Charles Martel, the de facto ruler of the Frankish kingdoms, over Muslim invaders from Spain. The battlefield cannot be exactly located, but it was fought somewhere between Tours and Poitiers, in what is now west-central France.
Battle of Tours
The Battle of Tours, also called the Battle of Poitiers and the Battle of the Highway of the Martyrs (Arabic: معركة بلاط الشهداء, romanized: Maʿrakat Balāṭ ash-Shuhadā'), was fought on 10 October 732, and was an important battle during the Umayyad invasion of Gaul.It resulted in the victory for the Frankish and Aquitanian forces, led by Charles Martel, over the invading ...
The Legacy of Charles Martel & the Battle of Tours
The Battle of Poitiers aka the Battle of Tours took place over roughly a week in early October of 732. The opposing sides consisted of a Frankish army led by Charles Martel (r. 718-741) against an invading Muslim army under the nominal sovereignty of the Umayyad Caliphate (c. 661-750) based in Damascus, Syria.. These two forces came together as Umayyad power sought expansion and plunder in ...
Battle of Tours
At the Battle of Tours near Poitiers, France, Frankish leader Charles Martel, a Christian, defeats a large army of Spanish Moors, halting the Muslim advance into Western Europe. Abd-ar-Rahman, the ...
Battle of Tours
The Battle of Tours (October 10, 732), often called Battle of Poitiers and also called in Arabic بلاط الشهداء (Balâṭ al-Shuhadâ') The Court of Martyrs was fought near the city of Tours, close to the border between the Frankish realm and the independent region of Aquitaine. The battle pitted Frankish and Burgundian. forces under Austrasian Mayor of the Palace Charles Martel ...
The Battle of Tours
In 725 Anbessa, the Saracen governor of Spain, personally leads an army across the Pyrenees Mountains into France and takes the strongly fortified town of Carcassone. During the battle he receives a fatal wound, and the Saracen army retires into the nearby town of Narbonne before retreating back to the safety of Spain. Western Europe - 732 AD.
Battle of Tours: Its Significance and Historical Implications
The Battle of Tours. Once his army had gathered, he marched to the fortified city of Tours, on the border with Aquitaine, to await the Muslim advance. ... Tours was a hugely important moment in the history of Europe, for though the battle of itself was perhaps not as seismic as some have claimed, it stemmed the tide of Islamic advance and ...
Battle Report: Battle of Tours
The Battle of Tours is unquestionably a noteworthy battle, but what exactly were its impacts om history. First, and most importantly, the Battle of Tours halted the spread of Islam into Western Europe. The Battle ended the First Umayyad invasion of modern-day France. The second invasion occurred from 735-739CE and arguably posed a greater threat.
The Battle of Tours
Rare are such conflicts that changed the history of the world with their importance and decided the future of us all for centuries to come. And one of those rare, world-changing battles is the Battle of Tours - fought in 732 AD between the Christian Frankish forces and the invading Muslim Umayyad Caliphate. This fierce and destructive conflict ...
Battle of Tours
The Battle of Tours, also called the Battle of Poitiers and the Battle of the Highway of the Martyrs, was fought on 10 October 732, and was an important battle during the Umayyad invasion of Gaul. It resulted in the victory for the Frankish and Aquitanian forces, led by Charles Martel, over the invading Muslim forces of the Umayyad Caliphate, led by Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi, governor of al ...
The making of a world historical moment: The Battle of Tours (732/3) in
The Battle of Tours (or Poitiers) in 732/3 is frequently cited as a turning point in world history, when the advance of Muslim Arabs was decisively halted by the Christian army of Frankish mayor Charles Martel. Yet the battle and its reputation seem relatively modest in the earliest sources, with little sense that conquest or religious tensions were key issues. This paper explores how the ...
Battle of Tours (732?)
The traditional dating of the battle to October 732 has been questioned by scholars on the basis of Iberian sources, with many preferring to place it in late 733 or 734. Because the encounter took place between Tours and Poitiers, it is sometimes also named after the latter city. What is known is that the battle took place because the Muslim ...
Battle of Tours, 732: Muslims vs. Christians
Background on the Battle of Tours In 711, the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate crossed into the Iberian Peninsula from Northern Africa and quickly began overrunning the region's Visigothic Christian kingdoms. Consolidating their position on the peninsula, they used the area as a platform for commencing raids over the Pyrenees into modern-day France.
Battle of Tours (732 A.D.)
Tours in history. In Western history. Christian contemporaries, from Bede to Theophanes carefully recorded the battle and were keen to spell out what they saw as its implications. Later scholars, such as Edward Gibbon, would contend that had Martel fallen, the Moors would have easily conquered a divided Europe.
Battle of Tours
The Battle of Tours definition is a battle between North African armies and Frankish forces led by Charles Martel in Gaul in 732 C.E. ... World History & Geography to 1500: Test Prep & Practice.
Medieval History
The Battle of Tours-Poitiers in 732 was a turning point in European history. Charles Martel's victory over the Umayyad army halted the Muslim advance into Europe, and the battle is considered one of the most important in world history.
Battle of Tours
The Battle of Tours was fought on 10 October 732, and was an important battle during the Umayyad invasion of Gaul. It resulted in the victory for the Frankish and Aquitanian forces, led by Charles Martel, over the invading forces of the Umayyad Caliphate, led by Abdul Rahman Al-Ghafiqi, governor of al-Andalus.
PDF The Making of a World Historical Moment: The Battle of Tours (732/3) in
The Making of a World Historical Moment: The Battle of Tours (732/3) in the Nineteenth Century James T Palmer 'The nations of Asia, Africa and Europe advanced with equal ardour to an encounter which would change the history of the world.' This is the famous bombast with which Edward Gibbon introduced the eighth-century Battle of Tours ...
AP World History wiki / Battle of Tours
The Battle of Tours ,often called Battle of Poitiers occurred on October 10, 732 and was fought near the city of Tours in France. The battle involved Frankish forces led by Charles Martel an army of the Ummayad. The Franks were victorious and Charles Martel as the champion of Christianity. Historians began to characterize this battle as being ...
Charles Martel and Pepin the Short
Key Points. Charles Martel was the de facto ruler of Francia (France) who defeated the Umayyad Caliphate in the Battle of Tours. The Battle of Tours was historically significant because it stopped the advance of the Muslim empire, which had successfully conquered much of Europe; many historians believe that had Charles failed, no power in Europe would have been able to halt Islamic expansion.
Charles Martel
Charles Martel (born c. 688—died October 22, 741, Quierzy-sur-Oise [France]) was the mayor of the palace of Austrasia (the eastern part of the Frankish kingdom) from 715 to 741. He reunited and ruled the entire Frankish realm and defeated a sizable Muslim raiding party at Poitiers in 732. His byname, Martel, means "the hammer.".
Battle of Tours, 732 (Illustration)
Illustration. "Bataille de Poitiers, en octobre 732" (French for " Battle of Poitiers, in October 732") by Charles de Steuben (1788 - 1856). The painting is a romanticized depiction of the Frankish general Charles Martel (718-741) fighting against the Umayyad general Abd al-Rehamn Al Ghafiqi at the Battle of Tours (also known as the "Battle of ...
AP World History Chpt. 17 Vocab Flashcards
AP World History Chpt. 17 Vocab. Charles Martel. Click the card to flip 👆. the Frankish commander for the battle of Tours. He defeated the Muslimsin the Battle of Tours, allowing Christianity to survive throughout the Dark Ages. He in a way started Feudalism by giving land to his knights that served for him. Click the card to flip 👆.
Historical Battlefields Tour
The Battle of Antietam, also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg, fought on September 17, 1862, during the American Civil War, is noted for being the bloodiest single-day battle in American history.

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Battle of Tours (732?) by Sam Ottewill-Soulsby LAST REVIEWED: 20 February 2024 LAST MODIFIED: 20 February 2024 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199791279-0247

Muslim Invasions of Western Europe: The 732 Battle of Tours

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Battle of Tours - The Franks Stand Strong

The Battle Of Tours Shaped Europe’s Destiny

The Battle of Tours: Frankish Triumph against Muslim Invasion

Uncertain Details of the Battle

The Fall of Al-Ghafiqi and Muslim Retreat

Battle of Tours Confirms Frankish Power

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Background: The Umayyad Conquests in Europe

The Strength of the Armies

Casualties and Aftermath

Clash of Empires at Tours

The Umayyads – A Mighty Empire

The Franks – The Emerging Empire

The Umayyad Conquest of Septimania

The Battle of Toulouse

The Alliance with Berber Commander Uthman ibn Naissa

The Battle of the River Garonne

Odo’s Appeal to the Franks

The Umayyad Advance toward the Loire

The Battle of Tours Begins: Charles' Surprising Tactics

The Skirmishes and the Wait for Reinforcements

Charles’ Infantry, Battle Tactics, and Preparation