pyramids of giza tourism impacts

The lonely pyramids of Giza: Egyptian tourism’s decline

The recent Coptic church bombings could further damage the already crippled tourism sector in the country.

Dozens of wrinkled Egyptian men sip tea, draw smoke from water pipes and boisterously chat in Arabic. Stray cats scamper beneath their feet. They lounge at a bustling alleyway cafe, sandwiched between the labyrinths of crumbling apartment buildings in the heart of Cairo, adjacent to Tahrir Square.

Just footsteps away, the maniacal spectacle of Cairo traffic is at work. Rusty cars whir by, lurching left and right, an orchestra of horns trumpeting their arrival and departure from one traffic light to the next. There’s no time for signalling. Exhaust fumes hang thick in the air. Around each corner, there is singing, squawking, screaming.

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This is both the doorstep to the Middle East, the corridor to North Africa, the launchpad of revolutions that reverberated worldwide, and the home of more than nine million Egyptians. But despite the beautiful chaos, Egypt is actually drought-stricken when it comes to visitors.

That reality is more visible, just a few blocks away, towards the banks of the River Nile. The marble-encrusted lobbies of Cairo’s many luxury hotels overlooking the Nile, once bustling with globetrotting tourists from every corner of the earth, are now silent.

Still recovering from the hangover of a failed revolution, a string of unfortunate airline disasters  – including an ISIL bombing of Russian Metrojet Flight 9268 over the Sinai Peninsula in 2015, which killed 224 people, and indefinitely halted all Russian flights to the country – and most recently, the  deadly bombings of Coptic churches in Tanta and Alexandria earlier this month, Egypt’s once-resilient tourism industry is battered and bruised.

The city’s tour guides, who used to be overworked, have been hit the hardest by the tourism industry’s fall from grace.

“I used to work at least 20 days a month,” said one Egyptian tour guide who asked that his name be withheld for security reasons. “Sometimes you have to close your phone because of many people calling you. During Christmas time and Easter holidays, no room, no hotels, no cars, no guide. Everything was busy.”

“It’s the opposite now, completely,” the Giza-based guide added, with hints of sadness in his voice as he explained the deterioration of his work.

“One month, maybe you don’t work at all. We don’t expect as many tourists as before. It’s very hard. I was lucky to not quit tourism. Many of my friends, the tour guides, they quit tourism and they found other work.”

The number of tourists visiting Egypt has plummeted from 14.7 million to 5.4 million in 2016, according to the United Nations World Tourism Organisation, or UNWTO, costing the country billions.

“It’s pretty dead,” said Steven Cook , a senior fellow for Middle Eastern studies at the Council for Foreign Relations.

Cook noted that Egypt’s tourism industry has often borne the brunt of the country’s political uncertainty and its security crises.

“I think the uprising in 2011 and the uncertainty throughout the transition period from [Hosni] Mubarak to [Mohamed] Morsi contributed [to] people staying away,” he added. “It’s really not terribly surprising given everything that’s happened since January 25, 2011, that the Egyptian tourism has been hit extremely hard. In 2010, the country welcomed something like 15 million foreign tourists. They haven’t even come close to that since. It’s unfortunate.”

However, before the most recent Coptic church attacks in Alexandria and Tanta, there were indicators tourism could be on the upswing in 2017.

Last month, a colossal pharaoh’s head  – thought to belong to either Ramses II or King Psammetichus I – and a limestone bust of Seti II, were unearthed from from the mud of a Cairo slum. On the heels of that find, a new pyramid dating back to the 13th dynasty, was discovered just south of Cairo by an Egyptian excavation team. These discoveries, both widely publicised, revived international interest in Egypt as an archaeological hotspot.

Russian flights to Egypt, which have been suspended since the Metrojet bombing in 2015, could also resume soon, although the prospect remains dubious. Nearly two and a half million Russians visited Egypt in 2014, making up roughly  a third of the country’s visitors, and a revival of this flow in human traffic would also boost the sagging tourism sector.

Egyptians were also hopeful that Germany’s Chancellor  Angela Merkel , actor Will Smith , and football superstar Lionel Messi ‘s recent visits to the pyramids would provide further momentum to a potential influx in foreign travelers.

“People are fascinated by ancient Egypt and so it would bring more people back,” Cook said in reference to the latest archaeological discoveries.

“The fact that high-profile individuals like Lionel Messi and Will Smith were visiting the country, they were very hopeful that those were good signs and that they would attract people back to the country,” he added.

But all this momentum, Cook said, is likely to now be interrupted following this month’s Coptic church bombings.

“Every time [Egyptians] think they’re turning the corner, something else happens that undermines the tourism industry,” Cook explained. “Whether it’s the MetroJet [bombing] or the EgyptAir flight [crash], or the expectation that things would change in the coming months, now they’re dealing with new terrorist attacks, which are likely to scare people away.”

However, Sandra Carvao , a spokeswoman for UNWTO, disagreed.

She cited UNWTO data from January and February, which saw a 52 percent increase in international visitors compared with the same time last year. Carvao said that despite the recent attacks, she expects tourism to continue to climb in Egypt through 2017.

“Egypt is a tourism leader both in the region and globally,” Carvao said via telephone from Madrid, Spain.

“It has gone through difficult circumstances before but it has always come back stronger … I think this time will not be different,” she added.

The bellwether of the Egyptian tourism industry is perhaps the Great Pyramids of Giza.

Hundreds, sometimes thousands, of tourists used to scurry about the idyllic and dusty dunes surrounding the mighty sunbaked temples.

Although tourism is apparently on the rise, exploring the site of the pyramids is like walking on the moon: it’s deserted, forlorn and uninhabited. The Great Sphinx, stoic-faced and imposing, and the three looming pyramids surrounding it, are often empty and quiet.

This evident slump in traffic is worrying for the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation  UNESCO , which is reponsible for preserving the pyramids.

“It concerns us because we understand that dynamic of tourism,” said Peter DeBrine , a senior project officer of UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre and a coordinator of its Sustainable Tourism Programme.

“We look at tourism as a way to support conservation, so if tourism drops, then that could then have a negative impact on the conservation of the sites. If they don’t have the resources to protect the site, that’s a huge concern.”

The Grand Egyptian Museum , a billion-dollar project dedicated to Egypt’s antiquities that is expected to partially open in 2018 in close proximity to the Giza pyramids, has been championed as a saviour of tourism. The 60,000-square-foot structure has been dubbed “Giza’s fourth pyramid” by Egyptian officials, is roughly five times bigger than the Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square, and is described as the largest archaeological museum in the world.

But whether this grandiose museum will translate into an increase of foreign visitors to Egypt and its pyramids, remains to be seen.

For the handful of current visitors to the ancient site, though, the absence of heavy tourist traffic allows for an intimate and peaceful encounter with the pyramids that a decade ago, would have been impossible.

“It was nice not to be surrounded by 400 pushy tourists with Nikon cameras,” said Nicole Haire, 49, a middle-school Canadian vice principal based in Doha, Qatar, who visited Egypt with her daughter Hannah in January.

“We went to Egypt to experience the culture but also the history of it, and we experienced that in isolation,” she added. “I felt like we went back in time. When we walked through different sites, quite often it was just us and the guide. I truly felt like a part of the fabric of the historic sites we were in.”

Jack Monell , 44, a criminology professor from Winston-Salem, North Carolina, had an equally sublime experience when he visited the pyramids in March.

“My visit to the pyramids, primarily, it wasn’t as busy as I’ve heard,” Monell described.

“I wasn’t overwhelmed. You could kind of have that surreal experience with these gigantic entities which have been existent for thousands of years. I’m a native New Yorker. I’m used to crowds and I’m used to kind of the hustle-bustle of major cities, so it wasn’t overwhelming. It wasn’t uncomfortable. I felt like I could move around and navigate. It was enjoyable,” he added.

Monell, though, said that the Coptic church bombings in Alexandria or Tanta wouldn’t have altered his decision to visit had the attacks occurred prior to his trip.

“I would be concerned and apprehensive, but [it] wouldn’t deter me,” he explained. “I’ve travelled all over the world, and sadly, terrorism is not exclusive to Islamic countries.”

Haire, too, said the attacks were worrying but wouldn’t have stopped her from seeing Egypt. “I don’t think we can live life in fear of the eventuality of things happening to us,” she said.

The Giza-based guide lamented the attacks, but was steadfast in his optimism that he would see a reversal of his fortunes this year, noting that prior to the Coptic church bombings, he had been busier than usual.

“[These] things happen everywhere,” he said. “Terrorism is everywhere. In Istanbul you find some attacks. [Last month] it was London. The media sometimes is exaggerating about things in Egypt. Egypt is very safe.”

But he added cautiously, “Nothing is sure in this world.”

• Research article
• Open access
• Published: 30 January 2020

Sustainability problems of the Giza pyramids

• Sayed Hemeda   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-0308-9285 1 &
• Alghreeb Sonbol 2  

Heritage Science volume  8 , Article number:  8 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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The Pyramids complex in Giza consists of three main pyramids in addition to the famous Sphinx and small queen’s pyramids. Recently, the pyramids of Cheops (Khufu), Chephren (Khafre) and Mykerinos (Menkaure) on the Giza plateau have been threatened by a rising groundwater table resulting from water leakage from the suburbs irrigation canals, and mass urbanization surrounding the Giza pyramids. The pyramids at Giza suffer from a lot of Geo-environmental and structural problems. The main objectives of this study are (1) to assess the current status of the preservation of this unique and high valuable archaeological site, (2) to analyze the various actions that cause the destruction of the pyramid complex, in particular the weathering activities and strong seismic event, and (3) to determine the geochemical and engineering properties for construction materials using different types of tools and advanced analytical and diagnostic techniques. Structural stability analysis requires good assessment of present conditions of major materials used such as stones and structural mortar. The paper shows a thorough analysis of the current condition of the Great Pyramids at Giza. The work includes a discussion and analysis of the natural character and source of the pyramids building stones, geological context, damage survey, petrographic investigation, and physical and mechanical characterization of the stones and structural mortars, by means of laboratory and in situ testing. The results are displayed, described and analyzed in the paper in the context of potential threats to the monuments. The experimental study indicates the dependence of mechanical geological properties on the physical properties and the mineral composition of the studied building materials. The physical and petrographic characteristic of the stones are related. The modeling of properties indicates a reliable relationship between the various visible pores and uniaxial compression force parameters that can be applied to predict and characterize limestone elsewhere.

Introduction

The Pyramids of Giza are the largest and most famous pyramid structures in the world. It was built to honor some pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt during a period known as the Old Kingdom. The Old Kingdom was the first great era of Egyptian civilization and lasted from 2686 to 2181 BC.

Pyramids of Giza, fourth Dynasty (about 2575–2465 BC) pyramids were erected on a rocky plateau on the west bank of the Nile near Giza in northern Egypt. In ancient times, they were included in the Seven Wonders of the ancient World. The ancient monuments of the Memphis region, including the Pyramids of Giza, Saqqara, Dahshuor, Abu Rawash, were designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979.

The Pyramids of Giza, built to endure forever, did exactly this. Archaeological tombs are remnants of the Old Kingdom of Egypt and were built about 4500 years ago.

Pharaohs thought in the resurrection, that there is a second life after death. To prepare for the next world, they set up temples of gods and huge pyramid tombs for themselves—filled with all the things each ruler would need to guide and preserve in the next world [ 1 , 2 , 3 ].

Pharaoh Cheops (Khufu) began the first project of the Pyramid of Giza, around 2550 BC. Its largest pyramid is the largest in Giza and is about 481 ft. (147 m) high above the plateau. Its stone masses estimated at approximately 2.3 million, weigh an average of 2.5 to 15 tons. The great pyramid builders used stones of different sizes and heights for the different layers. The stone blocks of Khufu’s pyramid were very large in the lower layers (1.0 m × 2.5 m base dimensions and 1.0–1.5 m high, 6.5–10 tons). For the layers that are higher up, it was easier to transport smaller blocks (1.0 m × 1.0 m × 0.5 m, appx 1.3 tons). For calculations most Egyptologists use 2.5 tons as the weight of an average pyramid stone block. 8000 tons of granite were imported from Aswan located at more than 800 km away. The largest granite stones in the pyramid, found above the “King’s” chamber, weigh 25 to 80 tons each. About 500,000 tons of mortar was used in the construction of the great pyramid. Many of the casing stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid were fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the north eastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 mm wide (1/50th of an inch). There are three known chambers inside the Great Pyramid as follows: (a) The lowest chamber is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built and was unfinished. (b) The so-called Queen’s Chamber and King’s Chamber are higher up within the pyramid structure. The Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the only pyramid in Egypt known to contain both ascending and descending passages. Originally, the Great Pyramid was provided with a stone cladding that formed a smooth outer surface; what is seen today is the underlying core structure. The cladding can still be seen around the top part of the Pyramid [ 4 ]. As shown in (Fig.  1 a).

a General view of the Cheops pyramid in Giza area. b General view of the Chephren pyramid in Giza area. c General view of the Mykerinos pyramid in Giza area

Pharaoh Chephren (Khafre), son of Khufu, built the second pyramid in Giza, around 2520 BC. His tomb also included the Sphinx, a mysterious limestone monument with the body of a lion and Pharaoh’s head. The Sphinx may stand guard for the entire tomb of the Pharaoh, as shown in (Fig.  1 b).

One-third of the pyramids of Giza are much smaller than the first two. Built by Pharaoh Mykerinos (Menkaure) around 2490 BC, the temple houses much more complex funerals. The Menkaure pyramid is built at the far end of the Giza diagonal on the edge of the Mokattam formation, where it dips down to the south and disappears into the younger Maadi formation. The complex includes a valley temple, a causeway, and a mortuary temple on the east side of the pyramid. The pyramid’s base lies 2.5 m higher than Khafre’s pyramid and occupies only a quarter of the area used by the Khafre and Khufu pyramids. With its original height of 66 m, Menkaure’s pyramid represents only about a tenth of the mass in comparison to the Khufu pyramid [ 5 ]. The bottommost 15 m of the pyramid were cased with granite blocks from Aswan. Further up, the casing was made of fine limestone.

Each huge pyramid is only one part of a larger complex, including palace, temples, solar boat pits, and other features, (see Fig.  1 c).

The Giza plateau was in ancient times, geologically connected to the Moqattam hill on the other side of the Nile crossing the site of what is now the capital Cairo. The top level of the Moqattam hill is now + 200 m. The top level of the Giza plateau must have acquired a level hypothetically close to the Moqattam surface level, i.e. + 200 m, or so. The geological formation of both sites, the Giza plateau and the Moqattam hill, is composed of a cretaceous nucleolus amid an Iocenean formation”, an action happened when Abu-Rawash concave cap mass was transposed upside down in the late upper cretaceous, resulting in a solid cap well exposed on the surface”. Amid that process, the site was formed as hill heights along with convexes of the vallies, keeping an “axis running from the eastern North to the western South” [ 6 ]. That axis almost coincides with the axis connecting the centers of gravity of the three pyramids. “The iocenean formation of the site is mainly composed of two strata, one higher and one lower. The lower stratum is identified as denser and more homogeneous.”

Conservation of historic buildings and archaeological sites is actually one of the most difficult challenges facing modern civilization. It involves a number of factors belonging to different areas (cultural, human, social, technical, economic and administrative), intertwined in inseparable patterns. The complexity of the topic is that it is difficult to imagine guidelines or recommendations that summarize what needs to be done and describe activities to continue, intervention techniques, design approaches.

From the point of view of the engineer, the specificity of this type of intervention is a requirement of respect for safety, along with ensuring safe use.

In the context of the principles of restoration, maintain the full integrity of The monument must be a well-accepted concept and this requires not rushing to stabilize measures until the monument’s behavior is properly understood.

Topography, geology, climate and human actions seem to have a significant impact on environmental processes, and therefore a significant impact on the conservation of the built environment.

The pyramid complex suffered from different types of structural damage and construction materials decay and disintegration. The sources of this degradation can generally be classified as: nature, time, and man-made. In recent years, the great pyramids and the Great Sphinx have been threatened by rising groundwater levels caused by water infiltration from the suburbs, irrigation canals and mass urbanization surrounding the Giza plateau [ 7 ]. The rising of groundwater levels represents a threat to the Egyptian Heritage of the Giza Pyramids Plateau (GPP) particularly since the area surrounding the plateau has been developed into the suburb of Greater Cairo. Today, Giza is a rapidly growing region of Cairo. Population growth in Egypt continues to soar, leading to new construction. New roads for large new developments are increasing obviously in the desert hills northwest and southwest of the Giza pyramids, As shown in space station views in (Fig.  2 a–d).

a Space station view, photograph taken by astronauts in (2001, August 15). Roads and new constructions for large new developments are obvious in the desert hills northwest and southwest of the Giza pyramids. After NASA-JSC Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth (http://eol/jsc.nasa.gov/sseop). b Space station view, photograph taken by astronauts in (2012, August 18). The new constructions in the desert hills northwest and southwest of the Giza pyramids rapidly increased. After NASA-JSC Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth (http://eol/jsc.nasa.gov/sseop). c Space station view, photograph taken by astronauts in (2016, May 3). The new constructions in the desert hills northwest and southwest of the Giza pyramids extended many times. After NASA-JSC Gateway to Astronaut Photography of Earth (http://eol/jsc.nasa.gov/sseop). d Space station view, photograph taken by astronauts in (2019, October 14). The new constructions in the desert hills northwest and southwest of the Giza pyramids. After MAXAR Technologies 2019 ( https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/ )

Understanding the passage ways of rain water on the plateau, groundwater and sewage from both the Nile flood plain and Abo Roash area play an important role in the conservation strategy for the unique artifacts of the Giza Plateau Two regional aquifers are located behind the Sphinx statue with a water level at a depth of 1.5 to 4 m below the surface (for example). The second aquifer is a broken carbon aquifer that covers an area beneath the pyramid and sphinx plateau, where the depth of the groundwater ranges from 4 to 7 m. The recharge of the aquifer underneath the Sphinx area occurred mainly through diversion of the water network and overall urbanization [ 7 ].

Due to the unique values of the three great pyramids in Giza, the present work is very important to analyze the nature and sustainability of the construction materials of the pyramid complex also to assess the effects of mechanical, dynamic and physiochemical actions of deterioration and structural deficiency, especially earthquakes and weathering impact on the pyramid structure.

Materials and methodology

Several tests and laboratory analyzes were carried out to determine the problems of the nature and sustainability of the outer casing stone blocks (granite, marble and limestone), filling stone blocks (limestone) and the structural mortars joining the stone units used in the construction of the three great pyramids in Giza. To investigate the above questions, we selected a total of 45 samples of fallen fragments from different locations around the three pyramids. The selected samples belong to the back layers and facades and represent typical building material features.

The laboratory work was carried out on site:

Photographic documents, architectural and geodetic survey of the pyramid.

Geomorphology, petrographic and chemical analysis.

Engineering properties and mechanical analysis of stones and structural mortars.

Record all cracks.

Eight thin sections were examined using polarized light microscopy to identify the petrographic and geochemical characteristics of these building materials (stones and binding mortars). X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray florescence (XRF) probes were conducted to identify slices and ratios of the installation stones and mortar. Together with Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) attached with Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) for microscopic examination and microscopic examination. Examples of XRD diffraction for both studied stones and slurry tests are increased by Cu K. radiation. The filtering speed is 2θ = 1°/min. With a constant voltage of 40 kV, 30 m and the use of X-ray diffraction PW 1480. Significant components (by weight %) of stone and mortar tests studied using X-ray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF) were performed on an advanced wavelength-dispersed spectrometer (Axios, WD- XRF Spectrometer, PANalytical, 2005, Netherlands). The chemical analyses were carried out adopting the ASTM specifications (ASTM C114-00, (ASTM C114-15)”), and electron microscopy images (SEM) were performed on a smaller scale analyzer JXA 840A for electron testing, Japan,

Engineering characteristics of the studied building materials (granite, limestone and structural mortar) were achieved. Fifteen cylindrical samples of stones were prepared to determine the petrophysical and geochemical properties. Specific gravity (GS), unit weight (γ), water absorption (wc), porosity (n) and saturation (sr) are the specific physical aspects. While the mechanical characterization included the determination of uniaxial compressive strength (σc), Young’s modulus (E) and Brazilian split tensile strength (σt), shear strength (T), Schmidt hammer index recovery number (SHV), durability or impact indexes are estimated by AIV, in addition to the non-destructive pulse ultrasonic wave velocity test (Vp) through stone examples, estimates of Young’s dynamic coefficient (Edy) and shear modulus (G) [ 8 ].

Geomorphologially and geological context of Giza plataeu

The Cheops, Khephren and Mykerinos pyramids are located in the north-western part of the Giza plateau (see Fig.  2 ). The altitude above sea level of the rock bases surrounding these monuments is approximately 68 m for Khephren and 62 m for Kheops (60 m at the SE corner), as shown in (Fig.  3 a, b). The Sphinx and Queen Kentkawes’ Mastaba lie further down on the plateau towards the Nile Valley. Their rock base altitudes are approximately 22 m around the Sphinx and 38 m around Kentkawes [ 9 ].

a Wireframe Topography and Rendered Structures in Plan View (after http://oi.uchicago.edu/research/projects/giz/comp_model.html ). b Rendered Giza Plateau Model from Northeast

Geomorphologically, the area under consideration is divided into four distinct units: the plateau, the cliff and the slopes, terraces and the Nile flood plain. The height of the plateau ranges from 20 m in the northeastern and eastern bottom and 105.8 m in the peaks of the Western side top summits [ 10 ]. The top of the Giza plateau is flat and varies in height from 60 to 106 masl whereas the elevation of the area of the pyramids vary from 60 to 70 masl. The dip angles range from 4 o to 7 o for the eastern part of the plateau near the Sphinx [ 11 ].

The studies show that the monuments of the fourth dynasty of the plateau of Giza are built on a sedimentary sequence with dominant carbonated formations deposited in an epicontinental sea of variable depth. All the authors agree that these sedimentary layers have the characteristics of the Mokattam formation and Maadi formation, from Middle to Late Eocene age, as shown in (Fig.  4 a–c).

(modified after ElArabi et al. [ 30 ])

a The geological setting of the Giza plateau, where the pyramids are built (modified after Yehia [ 12 ]). b A cross section using the ERT data shows how the groundwater elevation changes from the Sphinx to Menkaure Pyramid. It indicates an increase in groundwater elevation from west to east) (modified after Sharafeldin et al. [ 17 ]). c Groundwater aquifers affecting the Giza Plateau

OMara [ 12 ], Yehia [ 13 ] and El Aref and Refai [ 14 ] carried out structural studies on the Giza Pyramids Plateau. The plateau is an oriented NE-SW and dipping SE monocline. This monocline is the SE anticlinal limb of the Wadi El Toulon anticline, lying in the southern part of the Abu Rawash folded complex. The dip of the layers of this monoclinal structure is homogeneous. El Aref and Refai [ 14 ] gives a value ranging between 4 and 7° for the zone carrying the study sites.

This monoclinal is affected by hectometric faults with normal dominant and weak throw oriented NW–SE which does not affect the study sites. On the 1/100,000 map of Greater Cairo the plateau is located in the Mokattam formation of the Middle Eocene, linked in the south by faults with the Maadi formation of the Late Eocene. The weak throw and the orientation of these faults essentially suggest a discrete deformation by synsedimentary normal faults during the Eocene deposition period.

The entire plateau is affected by karstic processes, described by El Aref and Refai [ 14 ] and Dowidar and Abd-Allah [ 11 ], which developed according to the local structural and stratigraphic conditions and led to a particular morphology of stepped terraced escarpments, karst ridges and isolated hills. These authors relate the development of karst features to Mediterranean climatic conditions [ 9 ].

From the observations made in the boat-pits, at the NE corner of the Cheops pyramid and on the esplanade around the pyramid, we have seen that the rock base of the monument is mainly composed of nummulitic packstone.

Observations at Cheops ’ pyramid show that the rocky basement is not very visible in the lower parts of the pyramid. It is however possible to establish the presence of original rocky hill, as shown in (Fig.  5 a, b). The Northern East corner of the great pyramid of Khufu is the visible part of the original hill [ 9 ].

a Cheops (Khufu) Pyramid. The Northern East corner of the great pyramid. The visible part of the original hill. The visible part of the original hill. b Kheops Pyramid. Boatpit located at the NE of the pyramid showing pyramid base geological series

Petri [ 15 ] observed the rock in the inner proportions at an altitude of 8 m above the level of the scheme. For Eyth [ 16 ] the maximum height of the rock platform is 12.5 m, and Dormion [ 17 ] is only 6.60 m. They observed natural rock in the galleries of the pyramid of Cheops and Khephren where the lining of the walls had disappeared [ 9 ].

The study area fractures are found in three major groups heading west–northwest, northwest and northeast. Fractures to the west and northwest are predominant in the northern, western and eastern sides of the Pyramids of Cheops and North of the Pyramids of Chephren [ 9 , 10 , 11 ].

Depending on the depth of the 2012 groundwater contour map, there are two groundwater systems in the study area. The first part relates to the groundwater aquifer system and covers the eastern part of the Sphinx area where the depth of the groundwater ranges from 1.5 to 4 m below the surface of the ground and increases the depth of groundwater west. The second system is linked to water. The bearing layers belong to the formation of broken limestone (below Sphinx area), where the depth of groundwater ranges from 4 to 7 m below the surface [ 7 ].

Structural damage and materials decay

Dynamic actions.

According to historical recordings the strong earthquakes and seismic events that have stuck the Giza area induced small or medium damages and structural deficiency to the pyramids complex. Up to the end of the ninth century the secular number of reported earthquakes fluctuates between zero and three. A relatively high number (eight) of earthquakes has been reported in the tenth century. The reported earthquakes reach their highest number (17) in the nineteenth century [ 18 ].

The Question: What is the reason for the proven resistance of the monuments to the seismic events of the past? The good seismic behavior of the Giza plateau (limestone tertiary/cretaceous) or is it that the way in which the buildings were constructed enabled them to with stand successfully the seismic actions.

The instrumental seismicity map indicates that the pyramids site is characterized by very low seismicity setting [ 19 ].

The site selection and the geological properties of the area, being away from seismic effects, floods and groundwater levels, the stability of the geometric form of the pyramid, the solidity of the structural engineering and precision of execution arguably are the reasons why the Great Pyramids of Giza are the only survivors of the seven wonders of the ancient world. Most of the destructive earthquakes’ epicenters are localized in the eastern bank of the River Nile. Also, the isoseismal intensity contour map reflected that the pyramid site has not been affected by intensity value more than VI on Mercalli scale. Moreover, one of three seismotectonic trends affecting Egypt passes by Fayoum province but avoid the Pyramids’ site.

The sedimentary layers where the pyramids were considered a suitable foundation that can safely support the massive rock structure.

The good seismic behavior of the Giza plateau (limestone tertiary/cretaceous Formations) is a result of the transmission of the earthquake acceleration in the limestone or rock Formations is much lower than the transmission of the same earthquake acceleration in the soft and medium soils, as shown in (Fig.  6 a) [ 20 ]. Also the spectrum acceleration coefficient and force in the rock Formations are much lower than the spectrum acceleration Coefficient and larger force in the soft and medium soils in particular the clay soil as shown in (Fig.  6 b) [ 21 ]. Note: soil type coefficient should be examined for the top 30 m of soil or rock Formations layer. Also the ground accelerations are strongly modified by the soil conditions. Rock sites will have high frequency shaking, while on soft soil sites high frequencies (short period) will be reduced or filtered out, but low frequencies will be amplified as shown in (Fig.  6 c) [ 22 ].

a Transmission of seismic waves through different soil types (after, Junbo Jia [ 19 ]). b Response spectra for rock and soil sites (after, Krishna [ 20 ]). c Earthquake response (frequency) on sites with different soil types (after, Ansell and Taber [ 21 ])

The construction details, where the rock keys were used to stabilize the slope against slippage in the Great Pyramid (very functional especially during earthquakes). It is amazing to note that the maximum static stress under the Greater Pyramids is about 3500 kPa; yet this huge stress value did not entail any observed or likely foundation failure (bearing capacity or excessive settlement). Show that the builders had taken into consideration the likelihood of seismic loading. Founding of the monuments for the most part on solid rock and good quality of construction of the foundations favour their good anti seismic behavior.

The Pyramidal shape represents an extraordinary advantage, since the pyramid is the most earthquake-resistant structure possible, even more than the domes. For the construction details; several layers of smoothed stones without any mortars or sticky materials between them actually form a kind of base isolation for the foundations, where some flat small stones like pillow were laid to absorb the first shock of earthquake force on the pre-prepared soil under foundations. Some big stones layers were put over these small stones. The number of layers in most of the times was three and no mortar was used, the large foundation stones are called “Orthostat” stones. The pyramid shaped building is suitable in earthquake prone area due to its higher stiffness and less displacement.

The only earthquake that affected the pyramids was in the 14th century on August 8, 1303. A massive earthquake (M = 6.5 Richter) hit the Fayoum area and loosened many of the outer casing stones, some of the stones can still be seen as parts of these structures to this day. Later, explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site. Nevertheless, many of the outer casing stones around the base of the Khufu Pyramid can be seen today in site, displaying the same workmanship and precision as has been reported for centuries [ 19 ]. Table  1 represents the Earthquakes causing intensities VII or greater near Giza area.

In August 1303 AD, Eastern Mediterranean: A strong shock was felt throughout northern Egypt. Arabic sources reported that this earthquake was the strongest in Egypt, particularly in Alexandria. In Cairo, almost all houses suffered some damage and many large public buildings collapsed. The earthquake caused panic, and women run into the streets without their veils. Minarets of the mosques of Cairo were particularly affected. In Alexandria, many houses were ruined and killed a number of peoples. The lighthouse was shattered and its top collapsed. The damage extended to Southern Egypt up to Qus. This earthquake was placed by Sieberg to Faiyum, south of Cairo because of the severe damage in Middle Egypt. It was also reported that this earthquake caused large-scale damage in Rhodes and Crete. Ambraseys [ 23 ] placed its epicenter in the Mediterranean Sea as As-Souty mentioned that the advance of sea submerged half of Alexandria. According to Arabic sources (e.g. El-Maqrizy; As-Souty) aftershocks continued during 3 weeks [ 18 ].

Recently the present area is near to relatively active earthquake area to the west of downtown Cairo. In that area, the most destructive event in recent history of Egypt took place in October 12th, 1992. The epicentral distance is only about 30 km. Damage report after that earthquake showed that great pyramids at Giza were severely damaged, and few years later a restoration plan was inaugurated to save the pyramids from more damage and instability problems. In addition, other earthquake activities are also observed at east Cairo, like Aqaba earthquake in 1995. But Dahshour seismic zone constitutes the epicenter of the 12th October 1992 Cairo earthquake, and other seismic activity area produced earthquakes with magnitudes seldom reaching a magnitude of 5. However, due to their proximity from the dense population Cairo metropolitan, such earthquakes were widely felt in greater Cairo area. The seismic zone at Dahshour is only few kilometers from the pyramids complex. The epicentral distance between Cairo earthquake and pyramids is few kilometers only. This proximity indicates that Dahshour seismic zone might have the highest effect especially at short periods.

Most of the typical land failure effects were as extensive as soil liquefaction [ 24 ]. Giza Governorate was exposed to liquids during the 12 October earthquake [ 25 ].

Soil liquefaction has been reported in Giza. Since this is the last major earthquake affecting the monument, it is possible to assume that the present deformed form and the cracking of the inner chambers and the inner and outer stone layers [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. According to the Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram in 13 October 1992, several small outer casing blocks on the top of the great pyramid and supporting panels fell down during the Dahshuor earthquake 1992.

It is important to note that after the first earthquake, permanent distortions (and therefore moments of permanent curvature) remain, so that global behavior, even in the case of low-level earthquakes, becomes weaker and weaker. The structure is weakened after earthquakes between the blocks and deformations of the exits and pressure in the walls; from this point of view, the current situation is worse than in the past, as shown in (Fig.  7 a, b). Permanent deformation of blocks in the zone of borders of the façades and corners of the great Cheops ’ pyramid. The increasing weakness of the structure after earthquake causing the friction and sliding between the casings and filling blocks. Show extremely slow degradation process which affected the backing stone blocks of the great pyramid, many blocks were detached. The outer casing stone blocks fell down completely in 1303 strong earthquake.

a Permanent deformation of blocks in the zone of borders of the façades and corners of the great pyramid of Khufu. The increasing weakness of the structure after earthquake causing the friction and sliding between the facing and backing blocks. b Show extremely slow degradation process which affected the backing stone blocks of the great pyramid, many blocks were detached. The outer casing stone blocks fell down completely in 1303 strong earthquake

After the 1992 earthquake, the Giza pyramids remained deserted and thus suffered a gradual deterioration. Attention initially focused on the lateral boundaries of the remaining facades, where discontinuity and consequently the disappearance of peripheral stress led to a very disadvantageous situation, exacerbated by the dynamics that affected the current boundaries of the areas at risk.

The walls of the pyramid complex suffered from shear forces due to previous earthquakes; vertical cracks and cracks with a direction of about 35–45° above the horizontal, shows the corresponding failure mechanism. Some cracks affect specific elements such as thresholds for openings, doors and foundation stones, as shown in (Fig.  8 a, b). Cracking of backing limestone blocks due to the overloading and material decay and strength regression, which affected the great pyramid stability. The honey comb (differential) weathering aspects are obvious on the surfaces of backing limestone blocks. The outer facing limestone blocks are missed completely.

a Cracking and splitting of backing limestone blocks due to the high compression and overloading and material decay and strength regression, which affected the great Cheops pyramid stability. b The honeycomb weathering (differential erosion) patterns are obvious on the surfaces of limestone blocks. Alveolization develops her as cavities illustrating a combination of honeycombs and alignment following the natural bedding planes of the limestone

It is difficult to determine the actual degree of stability. Despite this uncertainty, the state of internal pressure of the structure, on the contrary, is well defined. Loss of balance cannot occur during the adjustment. This is the correct aspect of the behavior of building structures that can explain the great durability and longevity of many historic buildings.

The old builders were not Civil engineers. While the modern engineer’s interest is to prevent settlements, the old engineers were willing to allow the movements of institutions and the resulting cracks. There is something unique in the behavior of construction structures. This is due to the mechanical construction response, and differs significantly from those shown by the usual flexible materials. The difference is due to the low tensile strength of the construction and to the different response of the construction in stresses [ 30 ]. The pyramids were severely damaged on the surface of lower-level stone walls due to long-term static and dynamic actions, extensive cracks in walls caused mainly by settlements, and only because of seismic loads while the foundation stone sites were specifically removed.

Physiochemical actions

The climatic conditions in the study area are semi-arid; warm in winter with little rain and hot to dry in summer. The climate is characterized by the following parameters. With regard to precipitation, the average annual rainfall does not exceed 25 mm, which is generally rare throughout the year, sometimes occurring in the form of sudden and short showers associated with wind. The average annual relative humidity is around 46% with a maximum of 70% in November and a minimum of 30% in May. The maximum annual temperature is 28 °C while the lowest annual temperature is 13.8 °C. For winds, the prevailing wind blows are from the northwest and the monsoon known as Khamasin from the southwest and south. Wind speeds range from 7 to 14 km/h [ 31 ].

The great pyramids at Giza and have been threatened by rising groundwater levels caused by water infiltration from the suburbs. Irrigation canals, mass urbanization surrounding GPP, (as shown in Fig.  2 a–c). Two regional aquifers are located behind the Sphinx statue with a water level at a depth of 1.5 to 4 m below the surface (for example). The second aquifer is a broken carbon aquifer that covers an area beneath the pyramid and sphinx plateau, where the depth of the groundwater ranges from 4 to 7 m. The recharge of the aquifer underneath the Sphinx area occurred mainly through diversion of the water network and overall urbanization. The shallow water table elevation at Nazlet El-Samman village reaches 16–17 m and might recharge the aquifer below the Sphinx and Valley Temple, which is considered a severe hazard on the site [ 7 ].

There is deterioration in many parts of the three pyramids, associated with the aging of materials and the impact of aerial and ground water attack, and extreme stresses and cracks have accelerated the related phenomena, as shown in (Fig.  9 a, b), extremely slow degradation process which affected the backing limestone blocks of the Cheops, Chephren and Mykerinos pyramids is obvious. Many blocks was detached and are hanging.

a Show the limestone chipping under high compression and loading. Also represents the extremely slow degradation process which affected the backing limestone blocks of the Mykerinos, pyramid. Many blocks was detached and are hanging. b The outer casing granite blocks fell down completely due to the 1303 strong earthquake. The scattering of the granite facing blocks around the pyramid area is obvious

The pyramids stones are characterized by minute cracks, thin and superficial fractures, gaps in the stone veneer, separate stone layers and large gaps below the surficial hard crust.

The backing limestone of the three pyramids are characterized by deep and hollow pits on the surface crust. They are very thin and are based only on a few points. Some parts have lost their shell, and for this reason, large parts are characterized by strong separation. A severe phenomenon is the separation and peeling of the limestone layer due to the capillary rising of ground water, as shown in (Fig.  8 ).

The backing limestone blocks characterized by weak cementation and adhesion due to the presence of small cracks, or pores, of secondary origin resulting from salt weathering.

Our analysis showed that the poor state of conservation of the three pyramids can be attributed to two main factors: internal (or intrinsic) causes, related to the characteristics of the fossil limestone itself (e.g., mineral composition, stratification, fractures, etc.) and external causes (or Externalities), due to external factors (such as ground water, climate change etc.). While the latter began the process of weathering on limestone blocks, the development and increase of this process is due to lack of cohesion in limestone cement. In fact, the very poor state of maintaining interior walls is due to several internal factors, as in the past, are strictly interconnected.

On the other hand, external causes are associated with daily-acute environmental factors Seasonal thermal changes, solar radiation, wind direction and density—work in synergy with the internal causes of limestone degradation.

The most obvious and most common phenomenon is peeling (or lids) due to the capillary rising of ground water, specific both on the surface, in the form of high elevated chips, deeper parts, with thick detachable layers of limestone blocks. The layer is associated with temperature changes that cause the expansion and contraction cycles of the material, resulting in strong mechanical pressures.

Cracking within crystals is also very common in the fragile deformation of posterior limestone blocks characterized by high gaps. Means within crystals (not between) crystals. In highly penetrating stones, pressure builds up through the grain—the grain contact becomes large because the forces spread over very small areas (stress is the strength of each area), making it easily breakable internally than if porosity is small or non-existent.

The degradation of granite blocks casing the Mykerinos, pyramid is a complex process resulting from the interaction of many associated factors such as climate zone, a rising groundwater table resulting from water leakage from the suburbs irrigation canals, and mass urbanization surrounding the Giza pyramids and material properties that ultimately lead to chemical, physical/mechanical and biological weathering. Moreover, the behavior of building materials under weathering conditions is predicted by the design of the element and constructive elements. On the other hand, there are some specific weathering forms that affect different granite blocks depending on the surrounding environmental conditions such as red crusts that dominate the case study of aggressive alternative drying and urination cycles, as well as other chemically or biologically related degradation factors for the weathering rates of silicate minerals. Thus, it can be emphasized that the particular weathering model that characterizes our effects is due to all these factors and associated mechanisms; they consist mainly of complex types of iron oxide-dyed clay minerals. All these factors above require some conservation measures to protect the monuments through various scientific strategic plans containing many preventive and multiple measures.

Human impact

The pyramids used to be cased. The great Cheops pyramid was covered with outer casing white fine limestone blocks from Tura limestone quarry, only a few of these now remain at the pyramid’s base on the corners. The backing limestone blocks of Chephren pyramid was covered and cased with fine limestone blocks, also the stone cap now remain on the top of the Chephren pyramid. The Mykerinos pyramid was covered and cased with granite facing blocks were quarried and imported from Aswan quarry, 1000 km from Cairo.

During the middle Ages, much of the pyramid’s outer facing blocks were fell sown because of the 1303 earthquake, Table  1 . Many facing blocks were taken and reused for the buildings of many Coptic and Islamic monuments in Cairo city, revealing the Fossiliferous limestone backing blocks.

Construction of the pyramids of Giza

The fact now that the surface level of the area to the west of Cheops pyramid reaches + 110 m does not mean that it was the original height before its construction, as shown in (Fig.  3 ). Moreover as up mentioned, the other part of the formation—the Moqattam—on the east of the Nile is having an elevation + 200 m. Having this fact, and investigating the formation of the stones of the building material of the pyramid and the ground surface where pyramids were built, one could easily find that the former one was chosen from the upper stratum of Eocenean site while the latter one is the original lower dense stratum of the Eocenean which was used as a base for the structure, as shown in (Fig.  4 a).

In the mean time, to have the three pyramids visually well perceived from Iunu, their bases’ levels acquired 10 m difference from each other i.e. Khufu’s was on + 60 m, Khafre’s on + 70 m, and Menkaure’s on + 80 m. By mentioning that, the sum of masses of the pyramids almost reached 13.5 million tons, it should be said that as this was the dynamic weight, the equivalent static weight in place prior to the construction was five or six times, i.e. 67.5 or 81 million tons. That was the net weight of the blocks but, if we consider the wasted ruble resulted from shaping the blocks that number could easily have been doubled i.e. around 160 million tons. If the plateau was considered as the area between the contour lines of + 60 and + 80, then the area was 797,692.5 m 2 . That means that the height of that area could have reached level + 160 m or higher. So, that height was used as the building material in situ for the pyramid. Having that elevation of the original plateau, the logic tells the fact of transposing the huge masses extracted from the high levels to levels below, and eight ramps were used to roll blocks down. There is an example of such a ramp in front of the second pyramid [ 32 ].

It is noticed that the Great Pyramid was built on a carved outcrop using the existing topography at the time of its construction. The part of original hill constitutes 23% of the volume for the Khufu/Cheops Pyramid and the carved outcrop constitutes 11.5% of Khafre Pyramid [ 19 ].

Results and discussion of the petrigraphical study

From the observations made in the digging of boats, in the northeast corner of the pyramid of Khufu and on the deck around the pyramid, we have seen that the rocky base of the monument consists primarily of nummulitic packstone. Observations in Kheops, pyramid, based on the same criteria as Khephren’s pyramid, indicate that the rocky basement is very invisible in the lower parts of the pyramid. However, it is possible to prove the existence of an original rocky hill.

Mineralogical characteristics (by X-Ray diffraction)

X-ray diffraction was also used to identify minerals for whole stone powders and clay part. Semi-quantitative data are given for each metal present by their relative density the metal composition was determined by X-ray diffraction analysis, which was conducted through the National Center for Housing and Building Research in Cairo. Graphs of the representative body of limestone, specimens of structural limestone layers and samples of structural mortar layers were recorded. All results are summarized in Tables  2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 .

The outer casing limestone blocks (Cheops ’ s great pyramid)

The outer casing limestone consists of a whitish to whitish-yellow, very fine-grained limestone and can be easily distinguished from the heterogeneous filling limestone blocks with its much coarser microstructure.

Many of the outer casing stones and inner chamber blocks of the Great Pyramid were fit together with extremely high precision. Based on measurements taken on the north eastern casing stones, the mean opening of the joints is only 0.5 mm wide (1/50th of an inch).

Tura limestone formations were used as coated casing stones to cover the local limestone filling blocks of the Great Pyramid of Khufu. Although some of the casing remains, most have been removed. However, each of the ten stones discovered had inscriptions on the back sides.

The outer casing limestone blocks are constructed from large white fine limestone with a mineral content of 100% calcite (CaCO 3 ), few blocks are still in place, mostly at the base. It may be extracted from Tura quarry that belongs to the Mokattam Plateau. Hair and cracks are filled with fine stone with dust and soft sand. The upper units are indicated by weak limestone blocks with structural mortars. The outer layers of casing or lumps are made of limestone, which is characterized by pure fine limestone, mainly from calcite CaCo 3 (100%) and the results of the analysis are shown in Table  2 .

The backing limestone blocks (Cheops great pyramid)

The layers of backing limestone blocks which is irregular in size can be observed, these layers constitutes up to four courses lie between the outer casing layers and the core masonry, this core is not exposed.

The backing limestone blocks of Cheops great pyramid is composed mainly of calcite (CaCO 3 ) as the essential component associated with minor amount of iron oxides and quartz (SiO 2 ) and rare of dolomite (CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ), opaque minerals and halite (NaCl). Results of XRD pattern are presented in Table  3 .

The main quarry area, supplying the backing and core masonry of the Khufu pyramid, was situated some 500 m south of the pyramid’s southern edge. The more eastern parts of this central quarry field were generally exploited by Khafre to gain core material for his pyramid.

The structural joining mortars (Cheops ’ s great pyramid)

The structural mortar joining the backing limestone blocks composed of gypsum (Ca(SO 4 )(H 2 O) 2 ), rock fragments (composed of calcite and dolomite (CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ), biotite, muscovite and rare quartz grains cemented by very fine-grained matrix of gypsum, anhydrite (CaSO 4 ), calcite admixed with minor iron oxides. The analysis results are presented and summarized in Table  4 .

The backing limestone blocks (Chephren’s pyramid)

The backing limestone blocks of Chephren’s pyramid is composed mainly of calcite (CaCO 3 )as the essential component associated with rare amounts of iron oxides, microcrystalline quartz and opaque minerals Results of XRD pattern are presented in Table  5 .

The structural joining mortars (Chephren’s pyramid)

The structural mortar joining the filling limestone blocks is composed of gypsum (Ca(SO 4 )(H 2 O) 2 ), anhydrite and rock fragments (composed mainly of calcite) associated with minor amounts of quartz, biotite, iron oxides and opaques cemented by very fine-grained matrix of gypsum admixed with calcite, anhydrite, halite and iron oxides. The analysis results are presented in Table  6 .

The outer casing granite blocks (Mykerinos’s pyramid)

The outer casing granite blocks of the Mykerinos’s pyramid is composed mainly of potash feldspar (microcline, orthoclase and perthite), quartz and plagioclase associated with considerable amounts of hornblende and biotite and accessory amount of muscovite ((K, Ba, Na) 0.75 (Al, Mg, Cr, V) 2 (Si, Al, V) 4 O 10 (OH, O) 2 ), titanite, zircon and opaque minerals. Secondary minerals are represented by iron oxides sericite and clay minerals. The analysis results are presented in Table  7 .

The backing limestone blocks (Mykerinos, pyramid)

The backing limestone blocks of Mykerinos, pyramid is composed mainly of calcite (CaCO 3 ) as the essential component associated with minor amount of iron oxides and rare amounts of quartz, gypsum and opaque minerals. Results of XRD pattern are presented in Table  8 .

The structural joining mortars (Mykerinos, pyramid)

In the present study more than 6 mortars samples were analyzed in terms of determination of chemical composition and salt content. In an effort to correlate the salt content with the role and structure of the structural joining mortars.

The structural mortar joining the backing limestone blocks is lime based mortar and composed mainly of Calcite, magnesian (Mg.064 Ca.936)(CO 3 ) (55%), Rancieite (Ca, Mn)Mn 4 O 9.3 H 2 O (15%), Triplite (Fe, Mn) 2 FPO4 (10%), Quartz, syn SiO 2 (20%). The analysis results are presented in Table  9 .

Morphological description and qualitative microanalysis by SEM attached with EDAX

Microscopic examination and initial partial analysis on the front and back stone blocks and structural slurry samples from the three great pyramids were performed by the SEM attached with EDAX to study the texture, cement texture, fine image pores and the remaining carbonate portion on the filter paper to also identify structural mortar elements.

The backing limestone blocks from the three pyramids

The morphological investigation indicate that the Fossiliferous limestone (Biomicrite) bodies from the three pyramids contain different surface features, such as the wide distribution deteriorated crusts, corroded quartz grains and the presence of some large voids and micro pores, as well as, some disintegration aspects in each grain, as shown in (Fig.  10 a, c d) for the filling limestone blocks from Cheops ’ s pyramid (Fig.  15 a, c) for the filling limestone blocks from Chephren, pyramid (Fig.  11 a) for the filling limestone blocks from Mykerinos, pyramid.

a SEM micrographs of limestone from the backing stone blocks of Cheops pyramid. Observations of minute and deep cracks in the microstructure and salt crystallization into. b EDX spectrum and micro analysis of the previous image of the limestone grains from the backing stone blocks of Cheops pyramid. A strong Calcium signal is observed. c SEM micrographs of limestone from the backing stone blocks of Cheops pyramid. The micrographs show the reaction interfaces, service environment and degradation mechanism of the backing limestone blocks. d SEM micrographs of limestone from the backing stone blocks of Cheops pyramid

a SEM microscopic examination and micro structure of the backing limestone blocks of Mykerinos pyramid. The composite structure of the stone is obvious where the disconnecting between the quartz and calcite grains is clear, also the abundance of salt content inside the pores and cracks between grains. Deterioration of stone grain surface as a result of the weathering and mechanical factors. b EDX spectrum from the previous image of limestone grains of the backing limestone of Mykerinos pyramid. A strong calcium signal is observed

The micro analysis with EDX for the filling limestone from the three pyramids complex revealed that the limestone consist mainly of specific elements such as (Ca, Si, O, Al, Ca, O, K, Na, Al, C), (Figs.  10 b, 11 b, and 13 b).

The structural mortars from the three pyramids

SEM observations indicated that there is a relative deposition of calcium from the binder due to physical and chemical actions that reduced alkalinity and strength and increased absorption of this lime mortars. The lime linker becomes less hydraulic but has the highest resistance to perfusion, and some observations have indicated the presence of a condensed halite within the mortar composition. The presence of carbon and organic residues within the mortar composition was also apparent, as shown in (Figs.  12 a, c, 13 a, c).

a SEM micrographs of structural mortars joining the backing stone blocks of Cheops pyramid. Amorphous silica are participated on the limestone surfaces. b EDX spectrum and micro analysis of the previous image of the structural mortars grains joining the backing stone blocks of Cheops pyramid. A strong Calcium, sulphur and silica signals are observed. c SEM micrographs of structural mortars joining the backing stone blocks of Cheops pyramid. The micrographs show the characterization of the building material structures, contaminant analysis on and within building materials. The open pits and pore holes due to extensive weathering is obvious

a SEM micrographs of limestone of the backing limestone blocks of Chephren pyramid. Amorphous silica is participated on the limestone surfaces. b EDX spectrum and micro analysis of the previous image of the backing limestone grains from blocks of Chephren pyramid. A strong Calcium signal is observed. c EDX spectrum and micro analysis of backing limestone blocks of Chephren pyramid. Individual calcite grains are approximately 2.5 microns with smooth intergrown blocks with open pits

Specific energy dispersion X-ray analysis

The energy-dispersed X-ray spectrometer (EDS) is a powerful tool for research studies on building materials, particularly structural mortars. Elemental quantification contained in a gypsum mortar microscope can be performed at excellent spatial accuracy. Examination of all samples shows the use of stone fragments in mortar as filler or coarse raw material, and in the relevant EDX analysis showed Ca and Si.

For the structural mortar collected from the pyramids of Cheops and Chephren, the results obtained indicate the presence of Ca, Si, O, S, Cl, Na, and C elements as the main elements in the formation of mortar, suggesting that the structural mortar in these two pyramids is a cannon Gypsum mortar (gypsum and sand), as shown in (Figs.  12 b and 14 b). In addition to the presence of calcite and iron oxide aggregates, the presence of sodium chloride due to salt contamination (Fig.  14 b). The presence of carbon residues and scorched organic matter represented in phosphorus, nitrogen and oxygen P, N, C. While the results obtained from samples collected from the pyramid of Mykerinos revealed that the structural mortar is lime mortar.

a SEM micrographs of structural mortars joining the backing stone blocks of Chephren pyramid. Observation of minute and deep cracks in the mortar structure and salt crystallization into mortars. b EDX spectrum and micro analysis of the previous image of the structural mortars grains joining the backing stone blocks of Chephren pyramid. A strong Calcium and silica signals are observed. c SEM micrographs of structural mortars joining the backing stone blocks of Chephren pyramid. The open pits and pore holes due to extensive weathering is obvious

The outer casing granite blocks from Mykerinos, pyramid

The morphology of aggregate granite surfaces evaluated by SEM and the results obtained show that the confrontation blocks have been severely affected by various dynamic procedures and physical–chemical action, especially weathering factors that lead to some degradation effects such as: Degradation and fracture of shapes in addition to filling the gaps between grains, (Fig.  15 a). The accumulated particles consist of some types of clay minerals and salts. Create red crusts, small cracks and other forms of degradation, (Fig.  15 c).

a SEM microscopic examination and micro structure of the outer facing granite blocks of Mykerinos pyramid. Micrographs show heavy materials disintegration and few trace elements are slightly immobile, whereas most major (particularly Ca and Na) and trace elements are mobile from the beginning of the granite weathering. On the other hand, there were mineralogical changes initiated from a plagioclase breakdown, which shows a characteristic circular dissolved pattern caused by a preferential leaching of Ca cation along grain boundaries and zoning. The biotite in that region is also supposed to be sensitive to exterior environmental condition. b EDX spectrum of the previous image of the grains of the facing granite blocks of Mykerinos pyramid. A strong silica, aluminum and potassium signals are observed. c SEM microscopic examination and micro structure of the facing granite blocks of Mykerinos pyramid. It seems that some rock-forming minerals in the granitic facing blocks are significantly unstable due to the environmental condition. d EDX spectrum of the previous image of granite grains of the facing granite blocks of Mykerinos pyramid. A strong silica signal is observed

Chemical analyzes of red weathering spots (diameter 3.23 to 50.32 mm) conducted by EDX proved that different proportions of racial oxides are strongly affected but with different degrees according to the location and depth of weathering spots. These results can be summarized as follows:

The cortex samples consist of (Si, Al, K, Ca, O, K, Na, C), (Fig.  15 b, d).

The primary oxide averages for cortex or crust samples are (SiO 2 , 31%), (Al 2 O 3 , 9%), (K 2 O, 21%), (O, 20%), (CaO, 12%) and (NaO, 0.37%).

Thin section analysis under polarizing microscopy (petrographic and mineralogical characteristics )

Thin section analysis was performed to study the cement texture, porosity and permeability. Ten thin sections were prepared for the petrographic study of the sandstone and limestone body and slurry was incorporated to determine the mineral composition and experimental processes of the studied building material samples.

It is important to examine the building materials and the construction of the three great pyramids under polarized light microscopy, to determine the basic type of building materials (building stones and structural mortars) and to identify the original quarries for these stones and building materials. This method relies on polarized light that passes through a thin section of the sample.

The backing limestone blocks (Cheops, great pyramid)

Rock name: Fossiliferous limestone (Biomicrite).

Rock type: Organic, carbonate sedimentary rock.

Texture: The rock is very fine to fine-grained. Microfossils of different sizes and shapes are present in a significant amount, scattered in the rock matrix. Few pore spaces (irregular shapes and sizes) are present in heterogeneous distribution in carbonate matrix of the rock.

Mineral composition: the rock is composed mainly of calcite as the essential component associated with minor amount of iron oxides and quartz and rare of dolomite, opaque minerals and halite.

Calcite represents the majority of the matrix of the rock. It occurs as very fine-grained aggregates, Anhedral crystals interlocked with each other’s. Many microfossils of different sizes and shapes are scattered in the matrix of the rock and filled by recrystallized calcite and/or dolomite. Dolomite is very fine to fine-grained, subhedral crystals and associated with calcite. Quartz occurs as fine to very fine-grained Anhedral crystals scattered in the rock. The rock is highly stained by iron oxides in some parts (Fig.  16 ).

Microscopic photograph shows the backing Fossiliferous limestone (Biomicrite) blocks of Cheops pyramid, which composed mainly of calcite as the essential component associated with minor amount of iron oxides and quartz and rare of dolomite, opaque minerals and halite

These limestones are of a grey-beige to yellow–brown colour, mostly compact but also porous in places, and they feel chalky due to marly components. Many of small-sized fossil remains are detectable but hard to identify. Occasionally, small nummulites up to 5 mm in length could be recognized at polished surfaces. During storage over a longer period, various salts effloresce at the surface, which can be washed off easily with the finger. With a hand lens, the fossils appear mostly as small nummulites, shells and other fossil remains, all irregularly imbedded and mostly secondarily calcified within the limestone matrix.

The present study confirms that the building stones of the pyramids are natural rocks and were not formed by using artificial concrete.

Structural mortar (Cheops, great pyramid)

Sample Name: Mortar Sample.

Sample Type: Archaeological sample.

Texture: very fine to coarse-grained, showing prophyrtic texture (fine to coarse-grained of rock fragments gypsum, biotite, muscovite and rare quartz grains enclosed in a very fine-grained matrix). Many irregular pore space are detected in the sample.

Mineral composition: The sample is very fine to coarse-grained and composed of gypsum, rock fragments (composed of calcite and dolomite), biotite, muscovite and rare quartz grains cemented by very fine-grained matrix of gypsum, anhydrite, calcite admixed with minor iron oxides. Minor amounts of mafic minerals (biotite and muscovite) and opaque minerals are observed scattered in the sample. Rock fragments are represented by fossiliferous limestone, dolostone, gypsum and anhydrite.

Rock fragments occur as medium to coarse-grained of rounded to subangular outlines, scattered in the sample matrix. Quartz occurs in rare amounts as very fine to fine-grained of rounded to subangular outlines cemented by a mixture of very fine-grained cement matrix. Iron oxides and opaque minerals occur as very fine to medium-grained scattered in the sample. Mafic minerals present as very fine to fine-grained, and observed in the matrix of the sample. Many of irregular pore spaces and cavities are detected in the sample (Fig.  17 ).

Microscopic photograph shows the structural mortars joining the backing limestone blocks of Cheops pyramid. The joining mortar is very fine to coarse-grained and composed of gypsum, rock fragments (composed of calcite and dolomite), biotite, muscovite and rare quartz grains cemented by very fine-grained matrix of gypsum, anhydrite, calcite admixed with minor iron oxides

Rock type: Organic carbonate sedimentary rock.

Texture: The sample is very fine-grained. Some microfossils of different sizes and shapes are observed in the rock matrix.

Mineral composition: the rock is very-grained and composed mainly of calcite as the essential component associated with rare amounts of iron oxides, microcrystalline quartz and opaque minerals. Calcite represents the matrix of the rock and occurs as very fine-grained (micrite), anhedral to subhedral interlocked crystals. Quartz is detected as very fine-grained crystals scattered in the matrix. It also presents as aggregates partially and/or completely filling microfossils. Some microfossils of different sizes and shapes are observed scattered in the carbonate matrix. Microfossils are mostly filled by recrystallized calcite. Some pores of irregular shapes and various sizes are observed scattered in the rock. Some parts of the sample are stained by iron oxides (Fig.  18 ).

Microscopic photograph shows the backing Fossiliferous limestone (Biomicrite) blocks of Chephren pyramid. The limestone is very-grained and composed mainly of calcite as the essential component associated with rare amounts of iron oxides, microcrystalline quartz and opaque minerals. Calcite represents the matrix of the rock and occurs as very fine-grained (micrite), anhedral to subhedral interlocked crystals. Quartz is detected as very fine-grained crystals scattered in the matrix

Structural mortars (Chephren’s pyramid)

Sample Name: Mortar sample.

Texture: very fine to coarse-grained, showing prophyrtic texture (fine to medium-grained of quartz, gypsum and rock fragments enclosed in very fine-grained matrix). Significant amounts of irregular pore space are detected in the sample.

Mineral composition: The sample is composed of gypsum, anhydrite and rock fragments (composed mainly of calcite) associated with minor amounts of quartz, biotite, iron oxides and opaques cemented by very fine-grained matrix of gypsum admixed with calcite, anhydrite, halite and iron oxides. Quartz occurs as fine to medium-grained of rounded to subangular outlines and some of which are cracked. Quartz grains are cemented by a mixture of very fine-grained cement matrix. Rock fragments are represented by limestone, gypsum and anhydrite which occur as medium-grained and rounded to subangular in sample. Iron oxides and opaque minerals occur as very fine to medium-grained scattered in the sample. Significant amounts of irregular pore space and cavities (vugs) are detected in the sample (Fig.  19 ).

Microscopic photograph shows the structural mortars joining the backing limestone blocks of Chephren pyramid. Very fine to coarse-grained, showing prophyrtic texture (fine to medium-grained of quartz, gypsum and rock fragments enclosed in very fine-grained matrix). Significant amounts of irregular pore space are detected in the sample. The sample is composed of gypsum, anhydrite and rock fragments (composed mainly of calcite) associated with minor amounts of quartz, biotite, iron oxides and opaques cemented by very fine-grained matrix of gypsum admixed with calcite, anhydrite, halite and iron oxides

The outer casing granite blocks (Mykerinos, pyramid)

Rock name: granite

Rock type: plutonic, acidic igneous rock

Texture: the rock is medium to coarse-grained showing, equigranular, hypidiomorphic, perthitic and piokilitic texture.

Mineral composition: the rock is composed mainly of potash feldspar (microcline, orthoclase and perthite), quartz and plagioclase associated with considerable amounts of hornblende and biotite and accessory amount of muscovite, titanite, zircon and opaque minerals. Secondary minerals are represented by iron oxides sericite and clay minerals. Potash feldspar (microcline, orthoclase and perthite) is the most abundant constituent of the whole rock. It is medium to coarse-grained, generally subhedral to anhedral crystals and slightly altered to clay minerals. Plagioclase replaces and forms fine lamellae (perthitic intergrowths) over microcline showing perthitic texture. Quartz is an essential mineral constituent occurs as fine to coarse-grained, anhedral crystals. It also presents as crystal aggregates that fill in the interstitial spaces between feldspar crystals.

Quartz shows stretched, sutured, fractured and curved boundaries due to mild deformation process. Plagioclase is medium to coarse-grained, subhedral platy in form and shows distinct lamellar twinning. Plagioclase is slightly altered to sericite. It presents also as irregular lamellae, thin films and fine inclusions intergrowths in microcline perthite. Hornblende presents as fine to medium-grained aggregates, prismatic crystals in association with biotite. Biotite occurs in minor amount as medium to fine-grained aggregates, tabular, flaky crystals at the interstices of feldspars and quartz. It is partially altered to iron oxides (Fig.  20 ).

Microscopic photograph shows the facing granite, plutonic, acidic igneous rock blocks of Mykerinos pyramid. The rock is medium to coarse-grained showing, equigranular, hypidiomorphic, perthitic and piokilitic texture. The rock is composed mainly of potash feldspar (microcline, orthoclase and perthite), quartz and plagioclase associated with considerable amounts of hornblende and biotite and accessory amount of muscovite, titanite, zircon and opaque minerals. Secondary minerals are represented by iron oxides sericite and clay minerals

Alteration: the rock is affected by mild deformed and slightly alteration. Alteration products are clay minerals and sericite after potash feldspars and plagioclase. Hornblende and biotite are moderately altered to iron oxides. Quartz frequently shows curved boundaries and fractured, stretched and sutured due to mild deformation process.

Opaque minerals: are minor amount, forming fine-grained dissemination in the rock. Opaques show common association with biotite and hornblende.

Texture: The rock is very fine to fine-grained. Significant amount of microfossils of different sizes and shapes are present in the matrix. Few pore spaces (irregular shapes and sizes) are present in heterogeneous distribution in carbonate matrix of the rock.

Mineral composition: the rock is composed mainly of calcite as the essential component associated with minor amount of iron oxides and rare amounts of quartz, gypsum and opaque minerals. Calcite represents the majority of the matrix of the rock and occurs as very fine-grained aggregates, anhedral crystals interlocked with each other’s. Iron oxides occur in considerable amount as fine-grained aggregates and also as patches stained some parts of the sample. Significant amount of microfossils of different sizes and shapes are scattered in the matrix of the rock and filled by recrystallized calcite and/or dolomite. Quartz occurs as fine to very fine-grained Anhedral crystals scattered in the rock. The rock is highly stained by iron oxides (Fig.  21 ). A somewhat higher porosity can be observed, which is due to the many open fossil interspaces. Further, a denser structure of the many small nummulites, discocyclinae, and other fossil remains is evident.

Microscopic photograph shows the backing Fossiliferous limestone (Biomicrite) blocks of Mykerinos pyramid. The rock is very fine to fine-grained. Significant amount of microfossils of different sizes and shapes are present in the matrix. Few pore spaces (irregular shapes and sizes) are present in heterogeneous distribution in carbonate matrix of the rock. The rock is composed mainly of calcite as the essential component associated with minor amount of iron oxides and rare amounts of quartz, gypsum and opaque minerals. Calcite represents the majority of the matrix of the rock and occurs as very fine-grained aggregates, anhedral crystals interlocked with each other’s. Iron oxides occur in considerable amount as fine-grained aggregates and also as patches stained some parts of the sample

Engineering characterization of the filling limestone blocks from the three pyramids (results and discussion)

Physical properties of the limestone.

Determination of the specific fossiliferious limestone weight; the real specific weight using Gibertini E42 scale and pycnometer and the bulk density using Gibertini E42 scale and caliper.

Porosity analysis to determine full open porosity and pore size distribution via water absorption measurements (Thermo Quest Pascal 246 mercury scale; Mercury porosity scale according to UNI—Normal 4/80; Gibertini E42 scale).

Unit weight, specific gravity, water absorption, total and open porosity

Petrophysical properties of the backing limestone blocks samples from the three pyramids: Physical measurements referred that the unit weight (γ) of limestone is between 1.99 and 2.31 g/cm 3 , Specific gravity (Gs) in range of 1.97 to 2.31, water absorption (Wa) is between 12 and 20% and the total porosity (n) ranged from 21 to 33%. Results are summarized in Table  10 . According to the ASTM C568/C568M-15 [ 33 ] the physical characteristics of the construction materials of the three pyramids is low, since the water absorption by weigh/max must be in range of 3% for the low density limestone to 12% for the high density limestone.

Pore size distributing/pore media characterization

Five cylindrical specimens of backing limestone blocks were collected from the Khufu pyramid and verified to determine the characterization of pore media for this fossil limestone [ 29 ]. Note that: the distribution of the pore diameter of the basic sandstone blocks is, 10–20A (0.15%), 20–30A (0.05%), 30–50A (0.105%), 50–100A (0.09%), 100–200A (0.06%), 200–2330A (96.42%), and nm = 2.79 E-05, BET (m 2 /gr) = 2.9, TPV (ml/gr) = 1.8, and micro porosity  % is 2.77, as shown in Table  10 .

Weathering is associated with structural properties, such as weak physical and mechanical properties of geometry, chemical composition, and the presence of soluble salts in porous systems of building stones and structural mortars that are considered the binding agents for building elements in the history of structures. The durability of this limestone is moderate due to the weakness of binding material among the calcite grains. This moderate stone strength seriously affects the integrity of great hierarchical structures under constant and seismic loading conditions [ 34 , 35 ].

Mechanical properties of the backing limestone

The sample preparation was conducted in accordance with the ASTM standard for uniaxial and tri-axial compressive testing (ASTM D7012-10 (2010)) Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength and Elastic Moduli of Intact Rock Core Specimens under Varying States of Stress and Temperatures [ 36 ]. In order to maintain consistency, all the samples were cored to 50 mm in diameter using the same block of Fossilferious limestone at the same orientation.

Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) and Young’s modulus of the backing limestone blocks

Of all the tests carried out, the test of the compressive strength of the stones is very important, as this value is used by structural design engineers to assess the stability and structural conditions. Future research could consider combining the scratch test coupling with the on-site recoil hammer test with greater reliability to evaluate the stones on site without disturbing/destroying structures.

The compressive strength is the maximum load per unit area that the stone can bear without crushing. A higher compressive strength indicates that the stone can withstand a higher crushing load. The required values range from 7569 psi (52 MPa) for marble (ASTM C 503) to 19,000 psi (131 MPa) for granite (ASTM C 615). To determine the compressive strength, at least 5 specimens are tested in ASTM 170. They should be cubes at least 2″ to 3″ on each side. Each face must be perfectly flat and they must be parallel or perpendicular with each other. Faces must be smooth with no tool marks and there should be no nicks at the corners.

Fifteen samples were equipped with electric strain gauges with a length of 100 mm. Vertical pressure was gradually increased pressure until failure. Table  11 shows the compressive strength results of the five backing limestone samples collected from the Cheops pyramid. The compressive strength (σc) was between 12.14 and 15.16 MPa, indicating medium to poor geochemical characteristics. The average elastic modulus obtained for the five tested cylinders is 12.74 GPa. The results are shown in Table  12 . Figure  22 shows the uniaxial and triaxial compression testing set up.

Uniaxial and triaxial compression test set up

The results of the compressive strength (σc) of the five backing limestone samples collected from the Pyramid of the Chephren are ranged from 12.1 to 17.8 MPa, suggesting medium to poor geomechanical properties. The average elastic modulus obtained for the five cylinders tested is 13.82 GPa. The results are given in Tables  13 and 14 .

The results of compressive strength (σc) for the five backing limestone samples collected from the Mykerinos pyramid was between 10.20 and 13.08 MPa, suggesting very poor geomechanical properties. The average elastic modulus obtained for the five cylinders tested is 11.57 GPa. The results are given in Tables  15 and 16 . The low compressive strength of Mykerinos backing limestone specimens are due to its higher porosity which has be observed by mentioned thin sections. The high porosity may be due to the many open fossil interspaces. Further, a denser structure of the many small nummulites, discocyclinae, and other fossil remains is evident and reduced its stiffness and strength, (see Fig.  23 ). According to the ASTM C 170, C 880, C 99 test methods and ASTM C568/C568M-15 specifications [ 33 ] the physical and mechanical characteristics of the construction materials of the three pyramids is low, since the standard requirement for the uniaxial compressive strength (σc) of the limestone must be in range of 12 MPa for the low density limestone to 55 MPa for the high density limestone. The physical and mechanical properties of the construction materials of the three great pyramids are retreated because the area was subjected to intensive seasonal rainfall and evaporation in temperature (Mediterranean) climate conditions.

Compressive strength (σc) versus the Total Porosity (n) for the Fossiliferious limestone from the three pyramids

The experimental study indicates the dependence of mechanical geological properties on the physical properties and the mineral composition of the studied building materials. The physical and petrographic characteristic of the stones are related. The modeling of properties indicates a reliable relationship between the various visible pores and uniaxial compression force parameters that can be applied to predict and characterize limestone formations elsewhere.

Splitting tensile strength of the backing limestone blocks

Fifteen cylinders were tested to determine the average split tensile strength of the fossil limestone of the three great pyramids. The split tensile strength of the collected backing limestone specimens from of the great pyramid of Khufu is ranges from 1.99 to 3.71 MPa. The limestone tensile strength of the collected backing limestone specimens from of the pyramid of Chephren pyramid ranges from 1.79 to 3.71 MPa. The limestone tensile strength of the collected backing limestone specimens collected from the pyramid of Mykerinos is ranges from 2.23 to 2.98 MPa. Tables  11 , 13 and 15 give details of test results.

Shear strength of the backing limestone blocks

Fifteen cylinders were tested in single shear to determine the shear strength parameters of the filling limestone from the three great pyramids. The obtained shear strength for the backing limestone from Cheops pyramids equal 1.77 to 2.01 MPa. The obtained shear strength for the backing limestone from Chephren pyramid equal 1.67 to 2.28 MPa. The obtained shear strength for the backing limestone from Mykerinos pyramid equal 0.89 to 1.46 MPa. Tables  11 , 13 and 15 summarize the results of shear test.

Ultrasonic longitudinal wave velocity (Vp) measurements

Ultrasonic pulse velocity testing, mainly used to measure the sound velocity of the stones and hence the compressive strength of the stones. Measurement of longitudinal sound wave velocity can be an indication of the depth of crack observed on the surface. The aim of the study here was to associate the velocity of sound with different mechanical properties [ 37 ].

P-wave velocities were measured by the Pundit (CNS portable non-destructive ultrasonic indicator tester), which has two 65 kHz transducers (transmitter and receiver).

The backing limestone samples of the Cheops pyramid recorded low speed (3.88–6.34 km/s), as indicated in Table  11 . Limestone samples from the Chephren pyramid recorded low speed (4.5–6.8 km/s), indicated in Table  13 recorded limestone samples from the Mykerinos pyramid at low speed, (3.76–5.26 km/s), as is shown in Table  15 . Figure  24 represent the test results.

Compressive strength (σc) versus the prima wave velocity (Vp) for the Fossiliferious limestone from the three pyramids

Modeling of the characteristics as shown in Fig.  24 indicates a reliable relationship between longitudinal velocity waveform parameters (Vp) and uniaxial pressure resistance parameters (σc) which can be applied to predict and characterize weathered limestone elsewhere.

Schmidt hammer rebound number (RN)

In general, the rebound hammer is used to determine the quality of concrete and rock formations [ 38 , 39 ]. The Schmidt hammer method is one of the nondestructive testing techniques and is frequently adopted for evaluating the quality of in situ historic masonry structures. Whereas in this study, an attempt was made to assess the local compressive strength of limestone as a measure of the non-destructive test method. This approach requires extensive study and will be useful in the long term to test the heritage structures made of stones [ 40 , 41 ].

The Schmidt L-Type hammer of impact energy of 0.74 NM was used in this work. The hammer was transferred and 30 effects were performed on each sample.

The hammer is forced against the surface of the stone block by the spring and the distance of rebound is measured on a scale. The test surface was horizontal and vertical. The rebound hammer test is described in ASTM C 805-85 [ 42 ]. Rebound Hammer test was carried out on selected structural backing limestone blocks. It serves as a tool to compare the strength of the existing structures. It gives a good indication on the limestone blocks surface hardness, which is reflective of the stone surface quality and strength.

The geochemical properties of the samples are medium and all are closely related. The values of the Schmidt hammer for the backing limestone blocks of the Khufu pyramid vary between RN 25 and 37; the results are given in Table  11 .

The geochemical properties of the samples are medium and all are closely related. The values of the Schmidt hammer for the backing limestone blocks of the Chephren pyramid vary between RN 24 and 36; the results are given in Table  13 .

The geochemical properties of the samples are medium and all are closely related. The values of the Schmidt hammer for the backing limestone blocks of the Mykerinos pyramid vary between RN 17 and 25; the results are given in Table  15 .

The modeling of the characteristics as shown in (Fig.  25 ) indicates a reliable relationship between the number of recoil and uniaxial compression force parameters that can be applied to predict and characterize hollow limestone elsewhere.

Compressive strength (σc) versus rebound number (RN) for the Fossiliferious limestone from the three pyramids

Impact value (AIV) test

AIV was used as a standard test by which the aggregate impact strength was achieved. As in the Protodyakonov test, the material used consists of irregularly shaped particles of fraction with a size of − 14 + 10 mm.

Fifteen tested limestone samples from the three pyramids are exposed to 15 hammer hits falling 380 mm, at an interval of at least one second. AIV method is better than Protodyakonov to predict “rough” the strength of the impact of rocks.

The shock strength of 15 hammer drops (drops) recorded very low values below 13 indicating poor limestone of the backing blocks of the Khufu pyramid, as shown in Table  11 . The impact strength of 15 hammer drops (drops) recorded very low values below 12 indicating poor limestone for the backing blocks of the Chephren Pyramid, as shown in Table  13 .

The shock strength of 15 hammer drops (drops) recorded low values below 9 indicating poor limestone for the backing stone blocks of the Mykerinos pyramid, as shown in Table  15 ).

Modeling of the characteristics as shown in Fig.  26 indicates a reliable relationship between Toughness indexes (AIV test) and uniaxial pressure resistance parameters (σc) which can be applied to predict and characterize weathered limestone elsewhere.

Compressive strength (σc) versus Toughness Indexes for the Fossiliferious limestone from the three pyramids

Physical characterization of the structural mortars

Table  17 summarizes the main physical characteristics of the joining mortars between backing limestone blocks from the three great pyramids. The determined physical characterization includes the aggregate maximum size (mm), proportion mortar to aggregate and the fines < 0.075 mm (%).

For the Capillarity Coefficient of structural mortars, the samples were first submitted to the water absorption tests using the technique of capillary absorption by contact, which was developed and calibrated previously. The capillarity coefficient obtained by this test gives an idea of the compacity and consequently of the state of conservation of samples. Moreover, it is a non-destructive test introducing no changes to historic samples. The main esults are summarized in Table  18 .

Conclusions

The pyramids complex suffered from different types of structural damage and construction materials decay and disintegration. The sources of this degradation can generally be classified as: nature, time, and man-made. In recent years, the great pyramids of the 4500-year-old at Giza plateau, Cheops (Khufu), Chephren (Khafre), Mykerinos (Menkaure) and the Great Sphinx have been threatened by rising groundwater levels caused by water infiltration from the suburbs, Irrigation canals and mass urbanization surrounding Giza pyramids plateau GPP.

The presence of building materials under investigation with great physical sensitivity to structural damage and weathering factors, especially dynamic procedures and high seismic events.

This study involved collection of intact stones and mortars samples without any damage but scattered on the floor; in situ testing of intact stones on the standing walls using non-destructive tests and carrying out laboratory testing of collected stone samples for assessment of strength characteristics. The multi-criteria analysis allowed the integration of several elements to map areas and zones at risk.

The detailed analytical study proved that these pyramids complexes are built of natural building materials, for the three pyramids complex, the filling or backing stones blocks are Fossiliferous limestone had been quarried and transported from Giza quarries that lie only a couple of 100 m south of the great pyramid, east of Khafre and south-east of the Mynkaure pyramid. The rock-cut trench west and north of the Khafre pyramid yielded an enormous amount of stone material, which was incorporated directly into the core masonry. The outer casing stone blocks for Cheops, great pyramid are white fine limestone were quarried and transported from Mokkatam Formations in particular from Tura quarry. The outer casing stone blocks for the Chephren’s pyramid is very fine limestone were quarried and transported from the Tura- Mssara quarries, Only a fraction of the original casing remains on the uppermost parts of the building. The outer casing stone blocks for the Mykerinos, pyramid is granite was imported from Aswan quarry. In contrast to the Khufu pyramid, which was most probably entirely covered with limestone blocks, the Khafre pyramid’s base layers were cased with blocks of various granite types from the large quarry area south of Aswan. The structural mortars joining the backing stone blocks of Cheops and Chephren pyramids are Gypsum mortars while is lime based mortar for the Mykerinos pyramid. The present study confirms that the building stones of the pyramids are natural rocks and were not formed by using artificial concrete. The most of the casing stone blocks were destroyed and fell down in the 1303 A.C earthquake and were reused for the construction of many Coptic and Islamic historic buildings in Cairo.

The study presented a detailed view of the geochemical and engineering properties of the materials used in the construction of the three pyramids complex (stones and structural mortars) and the weathering and erosion factors that affect their durability and sustainability. All construction materials offer low physical and mechanical characteristics, which may affect the structure ’ s safety factors for static and seismic loading at the lower levels. The present study indicates the dependence of mechanical properties on the physical and petrochemical properties of the studied building materials. Character modeling indicates a reliable relationship between different parameters.

The study revealed the existence of an original hill of large volume under the two great pyramids. The volume of this original hill is about 11.5% for the pyramid of Khephren and about 23% for the pyramid of Kheops.

The experimental study indicates the dependence of mechanical geological properties on the physical properties and the mineral composition of the studied building materials. The physical and petrographic characteristic of the stones are related. The modeling of properties indicates a reliable relationship between the various visible pores and uniaxial compression force parameters that can be applied to predict and characterize limestone elsewhere.

Further site investigations are required to assess foundation details, bearing capacity and stability calculations for each section or segment of the pyramid complex. Concentrated strengthening and structural retrofitting intervention are therefore essential and necessary for preservation of the pyramids complex. The structural and non-structural measures recommended in this research will help decision makers and planners to develop effective site management strategies in the future, modify the modernization and structural rehabilitation of this unique archaeological site.

A perched groundwater table might exist in the elevated area toward the west and southwest. Great care must be taken regarding the impact of mass urbanization in the western Great Pyramids of Giza, which may affect the groundwater model in the region, (see Fig.  2 ).

Availability of data and materials

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

Abbreviations

Bulk unit weight

Dry unit weight

Uniaxial compressive strength

Splitting tensile strength

Prima wave velocity

Shear wave velocity

Vertical stress

Strength of the pillar,

UCS strength

Angle between the normal to the fracture plane and the horizontal plane

Friction angle of the fracture

Shear stress in resin annulus

Applied stress

Decay coefficient 1/in which depends on the stiffness of the system

Reduction coefficient of dilation angle

Basic joint friction angle

The shear displacement at each step of loading

Cohesion between block joints

Normal force

Shear displacement

Normal force at failure

Shear force at failure

Bending moment at yield limit

Bending moment at plastic limit

Modulus of elasticity of intact rock

Shear force

Reaction length

Poison ration of rock mass

In situ stress

X-ray diffraction

Scanning electron microscopy

Energy dispersive X-ray

Brunauer–Emmett–Teller

Total porosity volume

Rebound number

Toughness Index

Joint roughness coefficient

Joint compressive strength

Rock mass quality

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The whole database construction and analysis are presented in the manuscript had been achieved by the first author. All stone samples provided by the second author. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Hemeda, S., Sonbol, A. Sustainability problems of the Giza pyramids. Herit Sci 8 , 8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40494-020-0356-9

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• Pyramids at Giza
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Egypt revives long-stalled effort to renovate pyramids as tourism rebounds

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Pushy locals hawking camel rides and souvenirs have long been part of the Giza pyramids experience.

But it wasn’t until recent years that conditions became so desperate that visitors approaching by taxi were advised to roll up the windows and lock the doors to keep overeager touts from jumping in the backseat.

As tourism evaporated after political turmoil erupted in Egypt in 2011, perhaps nothing symbolized the chaos and hardship like the scene at the pyramids, icons of Egypt’s rich past that developed a reputation as a decidedly unpleasant tourist attraction. Those who still dared to make the pilgrimage found themselves so incessantly harassed that some began settling for viewing the world’s only remaining ancient wonder of seven from the second floor of a nearby Pizza Hut.

Now, with tourism finally staging a comeback thanks to an improved security situation and bargain prices — arrivals are up 50% over last year — Egypt is pushing forward on an ambitious renovation to the Giza Plateau, which houses the Sphinx and the three pharaonic pyramids including the Great Pyramid of Khufu, a marvel of human engineering that was built around 2560 BC.

A military-owned company is said to be overseeing a $23-million project, which calls for a new visitors center, a state-of-the-art security system and a fleet of electric buses to ferry visitors to and from the nearby Grand Egyptian Museum — itself a massive, $1-billion project (paid for largely with Japanese bank loans) that’s been under construction for nearly 20 years.

A decade-long effort to renovate the site of the pyramids had halted abruptly after the 2011 political revolution as tourism revenue across Egypt plunged. Members of Egypt’s new government said in 2016 that work had resumed, overseen by Queen, a security and hospitality services company with ties to the armed forces. Officials have said they will contract with private companies to maintain, secure and clean the area, an idea that has been mostly applauded by archaeologists and tourism operators, many of whom have lost faith in the state’s ability to run the site.

“They will do a better job,” said former antiquities minister Zahi Hawass, who has long criticized the Giza Plateau as an “open zoo” filled with garbage and free-roaming, unlicensed vendors and pack animals. “You cannot experience the magic of the pyramids when someone is bothering you to buy a scarf.”

Details about the companies have not been forthcoming, however, and the project — like the museum — has been delayed repeatedly. In a January article, the website Egyptian Streets observed that though officials had promised the multimillion-dollar improvements by the end of 2016, the site was still “unsafe, unclean, and confusing” and lacked even basic long-promised improvements like ATMs and trash cans.

In recent decades, the creeping urban sprawl of modern Cairo began encroaching on the ancient majesty of the pyramids, which had long stood isolated in the desert. UNESCO named the Giza pyramids a World Heritage Site in 1979, but in subsequent years they were threatened by illegal construction and rapidly expanding neighboring slums in what is now known as the Haram (“Pyramids”) District, vehicle pollution and unfettered tourism, Hawass argued in a 2000 academic journal article.

On national holidays, thousands could be found playing soccer at the pyramids and climbing on the ancient structures, wrote Hawass, who helped spearhead the construction of a fence around the site in 2008.

“The pyramids should be for the people — but they’re like a dish of gold, and instead of cleaning and taking care of it, they” defiled it, added Hawass, who starred in a reality TV series on the History Channel before the Arab Spring uprising, when he was pushed out amid accusations of corruption and publicity-seeking.

Security at the Giza pyramids is lax compared with Rome’s Colosseum or Jerusalem’s Western Wall, where visitors’ movements are tightly controlled. And no fence was high enough to keep out impoverished salespeople in search of tourist dollars.

A record $12.5 billion from tourism flowed into Egypt’s economy in 2010 — more than a tenth of its gross domestic product. Some high-end tour operators wistfully recall the days when they had to pre-book camel rides for groups. “There was actually a shortage of sellers,” says Karim El Minabawy of Cairo-based Emeco Travel. “Then the situation was reversed.”

Western visitors stayed away from cultural sites across Egypt during two years of political unrest followed by a string of scary headlines: In 2015, security forces mistakenly killed a dozen mostly Mexican tourists picnicking in the desert; a few months later, terrorists bombed a Russian airline shortly after taking off from a Red Sea resort.

Online travel message boards about the Giza pyramids were filled with disturbing descriptions of emaciated, abused animals and aggressive vendors, a few of whom physically accosted visitors who declined to cooperate.

“It was mayhem,” said Monica Hanna, an Egyptian archaeologist turned activist after the revolution, when she started a social media group to combat the widespread looting of priceless antiquities that went on virtually unchecked starting in 2011.

Hanna cites conservation efforts of historic sites in Italy and elsewhere that were paid for through public-private partnerships that could possibly serve as a model for Egypt. Such arrangements are increasingly common among governments from San Francisco to Cambodia.

In a recent interview in his office near the Great Pyramid, Director General of the Giza Plateau Ashraf Mohi said the project — despite a paucity of visible progress — was “95% done.”

Conditions at the site have improved since last year with the long-awaited tourism rebound, though promised amenities have mostly not materialized, including a souvenir bazaar and a “riding zoo” for horses and camels.

On a recent morning, vendors at the pyramids wore shiny new ID badges as they sought to corral tourists. Authorities also recently imposed stiff new fines on overzealous touts. “If there is any complaint, we will take the guy straight to prison,” Mohi said.

But Hanna said such measures won’t solve a larger problem, which is that ordinary Egyptians think of antiquities and museums as state-owned properties that are off-limits.

“Unfortunately the government’s priority for the last 30 years has been to cater to tourists rather than the local community,” she said, noting that hundreds of books exist in English about the history of the pyramids, but only a few in Arabic.

“How can we expect people to value their cultural heritage when we have done nothing to teach them about it?”

Scheier is a special correspondent.

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I visited the Pyramids of Giza and found a surprising downside that no one ever talks about

• The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the World still standing, which was acknowledged when the New Seven Wonders of the World were introduced in 2007.
• I recently fulfilled a childhood dream to visit the archeological site, as well as many of Egypt's other pyramids, during a trip to the Middle East.
• While seeing the pyramids up close is an awe-inspiring sight, actually going in one is nowhere near as cool as you might think. They are expensive to enter, cramped and claustrophobic, and reek of mold to the point where I was coughing within seconds of being inside.

There are few monuments in the world as iconic as the Pyramids of Giza, a necropolis that dates back nearly 5,000 years. The Great Pyramid of Giza is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the World still standing, which was acknowledged when the New Seven Wonders of the World were introduced in 2007.

Many people dream of visiting the pyramids, as well as Egypt's numerous other historical monuments, ancient temples, and artifacts. I certainly did.

But upon visiting Egypt's many pyramids recently, I discovered something that in retrospect should have been obvious: They are not that fun to go into.

In December, I took a full day to visit as many of Egypt's 138 discovered pyramids as possible, including the Pyramids of Giza, as well as the Step Pyramid of Djoser, the Pyramid of Unas, the Bent Pyramid, and the Red Pyramid.

The first pyramid of the bunch I visited was the Dahshur necropolis' Red Pyramid, so named for its red limestone stones. It's the third-largest pyramid in Egypt, and it's free to go inside the tomb when you buy a ticket to the complex. (In contrast, to go inside any of the Pyramids of Giza, you have to pay $10 to $15 a person in addition to your ticket to the complex.)

It's important to remember that live humans weren't intended to be inside the pyramids. They are, first and foremost, tombs, designed to both exalt the deceased and protect their possessions from grave robbers.

To enter the pyramid, I descended a steep staircase in a narrow passageway that travels down a couple hundred feet to a short horizontal passageway. By the time I reached the bottom of the staircase, I couldn't see the light at the end of the tunnel.

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I visited on a quiet day, and I had to shimmy out of the way of only a few tourists climbing up as I was going down. As I passed them, I realized I wasn't going to be able to get out of the pyramid anytime soon.

With more people, I imagine the sense of claustrophobia is even more pronounced.

Once I was through the horizontal passageway, I entered the largest chamber, a triangular room with a stepped ceiling that rises 40 feet.

At this point, the stench and the heat started to get to me. I visited on a cool winter day, but inside the pyramid it was stuffy and hot. The smell of mold was the worst part. I found it hard to breathe and started holding a scarf over my mouth so that I didn't have to breathe in the mold directly. I was still coughing.

With the sense of claustrophobia and the dominating smell of mold, the inside of the pyramid was hardly worth going into.

All I found inside were narrow passageways and empty rooms, some of which were sprayed with the graffiti of explorers and grave robbers past.

Unlike the tombs in the Valley of the Kings, there are no colorful and detailed ancient paintings to marvel at in the chambers.

Grave robbers, explorers, and museum officials have long since taken anything of interest out of the tomb. There are no bodies, sarcophagi, or other funeral goods.

I took a quick glance at the rooms and reveled for a moment in the minor thrill of being in a king's giant tomb. Then I hightailed it out of the pyramid so I could get some fresh air. Though air is pumped into the tomb, I was still coughing as I went back up.

After visiting the Red Pyramid, I talked to other tourists who had already paid extra to go in the Pyramids of Giza. They told me that going inside those pyramids yields the same collection of brick walls and narrow passageways, with one difference: There are a lot more people.

I decided to skip it.

August 2, 2023: A photo caption in this story was updated to clarify that the photo shows the Red Pyramid, not the Great Pyramid.

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A camel driver waits for tourists near the Pyramids at Giza.

Pyramids at Giza

Tourism is Egypt’s second largest source of revenue, bringing in $13 billion in 2010. The Great Pyramid at Giza, after all, is one of the seven ancient wonders of the world.

To visit the Pyramids is to be struck dumb by their monumentality, their celebration of the fundamental human need to create. It's even more affecting in the midst of a revolution, when there are no tourists at all. A week after Hosni Mubarak’s departure and a day after the biggest celebration in Tahrir Square, a handful of Egyptians scrambled up the blocks of Khufu’s Great Pyramid, but there was not a foreigner to be seen.

I have visited them before, but this time they felt different. Each stone block is waist-high and worthy of awe. I noticed them, not the other people around me. They were mine for reflection and contemplation. All I could think of is how hard it must have been to make them, how much will it took when there were no cranes or earthmovers or power tools, and what that says about us as human beings—that we can no more not build or mark our place or strive for glory than we can not breathe or eat or love.

In the empty quiet I had a chance to talk to the horsemen and camel drivers who usually hustle rides to tourists.

“We have no work, nothing,” said Ali Abd el Hamid, astride his camel.

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He and his colleagues ply their trade seven days a week, year in and year out, a profession inherited from their fathers and grandfathers. They were barely hanging on now.

“I had three camels but sold two to feed my family,” says Hussein, who wouldn’t give his last name. “But before, the Egyptian citizen had no value, and hopefully that will change.”

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Egypt’s Great Pyramids and Sphinx Could be Lost to Climate Change, Experts Warn

By Tessa Solomon

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Reporter, ARTnews

Egypt’s world-famous antiquities, including the Sphinx and the Great Pyramids of Giza, could be lost to climate change by the end of the century, experts warn. 

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Air pollution and extreme weather events also pose threats to the country’s archaeological treasures, according to Bassir. “One third of every natural site, and one sixth of every cultural heritage site is currently under threat due to climate change,” he said.

Egypt, with its arid landscape and low-lying cities scattered along the Mediterranean and Nile River, will see severe consequences of climate change if sustainability is not prioritized worldwide. Experts have projected an increase in heat waves, dust storms, and rainstorms, all of which corrode stone and wash color from ancient statuary. 

In November, the  New York Times  reported that the tombs in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor will be “gone completely” within the century without urgent intervention; some temples stone are already showing wear from moisture.  

Egypt is also warming at the fastest rate of any country in the world, as most experts project an average temperature increase of over three degrees Fahrenheit with each successive decade. In the southern city of Aswan, temperatures regularly surpass 100 degrees Fahrenheit to the suffering of ancient granite monuments. The drastic shifts between Aswan’s sweltering days and cool nights have caused cracks in the granite, damaging inscriptions and imagery. 

Egypt’s industrial boom, beginning in the late 1800s, has accelerated the deterioration of Egypt’s cultural heritage. Growing cities need more agriculture—which means more water—straining the fragile ecosystem around the Nile. Agricultural irrigation for villages near the pyramids has caused groundwater to rise and, unable to be absorbed by loose soil, runoff has pooled around the paws of the Sphinx. 

The Egyptian government has made moves to mitigate environmental catastrophe, this year launching the National Climate Change Strategy which finances sustainable projects. $13 million has been earmarked to preserve the Citadel of Qaitbay from rising sea levels. 

Benedicte de Montlaur, World Monuments Fund President, said in a statement that it is important to “underscore not only the vulnerability of historic sites to climate change but also how heritage conservation can point us to ways of mitigating the worst effects of a warming world.”

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The Ultimate Guide To Visiting The Pyramids Of Giza

Published: October 14, 2023

Modified: December 28, 2023

by Catlaina Word

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Introduction

Welcome to the ultimate guide to visiting the Pyramids of Giza, one of the most iconic ancient wonders of the world. Located on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt, the Pyramids of Giza are an architectural marvel and a testament to the skill and ingenuity of the ancient Egyptians. This ancient necropolis holds the Great Pyramid of Khufu, the Pyramid of Khafre, the Pyramid of Menkaure, and the enigmatic Sphinx, all of which have been captivating visitors for centuries.

Stepping foot on the Giza Plateau, you’ll be transported back in time to a civilization that existed thousands of years ago. The Pyramids of Giza are not only a UNESCO World Heritage site but are also Egypt’s most visited tourist attraction, drawing millions of visitors each year who come in awe of these ancient structures.

In this guide, we will delve into the fascinating history of the Pyramids of Giza, explore their remarkable features, provide practical information on how to get there, and offer tips for an unforgettable visit. Whether you’re a history enthusiast, an archaeology buff, or simply intrigued by ancient civilizations, the Pyramids of Giza are a must-see destination that will leave you awe-inspired.

So, get ready to embark on a journey through time as we uncover the mysteries of the Pyramids of Giza and provide you with all the information you need to make the most of your visit.

A Brief History of the Pyramids of Giza

The Pyramids of Giza have stood the test of time, silently witnessing the rise and fall of civilizations for over 4,500 years. These ancient structures were built during the Old Kingdom period of ancient Egypt, primarily as burial complexes for the pharaohs and their families.

The most renowned of the Pyramids of Giza is the Great Pyramid of Khufu, also known as the Pyramid of Cheops. Built as the tomb for Pharaoh Khufu, it is the largest and oldest pyramid among the three main pyramids. Constructed around 2580-2560 BC, it stood as the tallest man-made structure in the world for over 3,800 years.

The second pyramid is the Pyramid of Khafre, built by Pharaoh Khafre, the son of Khufu. It is slightly smaller than the Great Pyramid but appears taller due to its location on higher ground. The Pyramid of Khafre is notable for having some of its original casing stones at the top intact, offering a glimpse into the grandeur of these structures during ancient times.

The smallest of the three main pyramids is the Pyramid of Menkaure, built by Pharaoh Menkaure, the grandson of Khufu. Though it may be smaller in size, it still carries great significance and impresses visitors with its intricate design.

Surrounding these pyramids is the enigmatic Sphinx, a majestic creature with the body of a lion and the head of a human. The Sphinx is believed to represent Pharaoh Khafre and serves as a guardian of the pyramids.

The construction of these pyramids required immense manpower, engineering prowess, and meticulous planning. Thousands of workers, including skilled craftsmen and laborers, were employed for many years to quarry the limestone blocks and assemble them into these colossal structures.

Throughout history, the pyramids were subject to looting and gradual decay, but their significance never diminished. Over the centuries, they have been studied by scholars, excavated by archaeologists, and admired by visitors from all over the world. Today, they stand as a symbol of human achievement and a testament to the advancement of ancient Egyptian civilization.

Join us as we explore the Pyramids of Giza in detail, uncovering their architectural marvels and unraveling the mysteries of the ancient Egyptians.

Location and How to Get There

The Pyramids of Giza are conveniently located on the outskirts of Cairo, making them easily accessible for visitors. The Giza Plateau, where the pyramids are located, is situated approximately 20 kilometers southwest of Cairo’s city center.

If you are flying into Cairo, the most convenient way to reach the pyramids is by hiring a taxi or using a ridesharing service. It is advisable to negotiate the fare or ensure the meter is used before starting the journey. The taxi ride usually takes around 30 to 45 minutes, depending on traffic conditions.

For those who prefer public transportation, Cairo has an extensive network of buses and mini-buses that connect to various parts of the city. You can take a bus from downtown Cairo to the Giza Plateau. Look for buses that are heading to “Giza” or “Pyramids”. Be sure to check the bus schedules and plan your trip accordingly.

If you’re staying in Giza or near the pyramids, you can even opt for a leisurely stroll to the site. Many hotels and guesthouses are located within walking distance, allowing you to enjoy a pleasant walk while taking in the views of the pyramids along the way.

Once you arrive at the Giza Plateau, you will find the entrance gate where you can purchase your tickets. It is recommended to buy tickets in advance or arrive early in the morning to avoid long queues. Additionally, consider hiring a local tour guide who can provide in-depth insights into the history and significance of the pyramids.

While visiting the Pyramids of Giza, it’s important to wear comfortable shoes and bring sunscreen, as the plateau can get quite hot, especially during the summer months. Don’t forget to carry a bottle of water to stay hydrated throughout your visit.

As you approach the Pyramids of Giza, you’ll be greeted by the sheer magnitude and majesty of these ancient structures. Prepare to be awestruck as you step foot onto this historic site and embark on an unforgettable journey back in time.

The Great Pyramid of Khufu

The Great Pyramid of Khufu, also known as the Pyramid of Cheops, is the largest and most iconic pyramid in the Giza complex. Built over 4,500 years ago, it was constructed as a tomb for Pharaoh Khufu, who ruled during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom of Egypt.

Standing at a staggering height of approximately 138 meters (or 455 feet), the Great Pyramid was once the tallest man-made structure in the world. Its base covers an area of around 13 acres, and it is estimated to consist of over 2 million limestone blocks, each weighing several tons.

Exploring the interior of the Great Pyramid is an awe-inspiring experience. Inside, visitors can discover the intricate passageways and chambers that were once reserved for the pharaoh and his burial rituals. The most notable chamber is the King’s Chamber, which is located in the heart of the pyramid. It contains the granite sarcophagus, although no evidence of a mummy or treasures has been found.

Venturing further into the pyramid, visitors can climb the narrow Grand Gallery, an impressive ascending passage lined with towering walls that leads to the Queen’s Chamber. While the Queen’s Chamber is smaller and less ornate compared to the King’s Chamber, it still showcases the remarkable craftsmanship and engineering skills of the ancient Egyptians.

One of the mysteries surrounding the Great Pyramid is how it was constructed with such precision and without modern technology. Theories suggest that a combination of ramps, clever pulley systems, and the coordination of a vast workforce were used to accomplish this architectural feat.

As you stand in the shadow of the Great Pyramid, you can’t help but be amazed at the sheer magnitude and precise construction of this ancient wonder. Its impressive scale and captivating history make it a must-visit attraction for anyone interested in ancient civilizations and archaeological marvels.

Don’t forget to capture the breathtaking view of the Great Pyramid from different angles, as it stands against the backdrop of the desert and the bustling city of Cairo. The sight of this monumental structure will leave an indelible impression on your memory.

The Pyramid of Khafre

The Pyramid of Khafre, located in the Giza complex, is the second-largest pyramid among the three main pyramids and is dedicated to Pharaoh Khafre, who was the son of Khufu and the successor to the throne. Built around 2520-2494 BC, the Pyramid of Khafre stands at a height of approximately 136 meters (448 feet) and is known for its distinctive feature of retaining some of its original casing stones at the top.

Similar to the Great Pyramid, the Pyramid of Khafre also served as a funerary complex, housing the pharaoh’s tomb and various chambers. The layout and internal structure of Khafre’s pyramid closely resemble that of his father’s pyramid. As you explore the pyramid, you can witness the grandeur and architectural precision that the ancient Egyptians were capable of achieving.

One of the distinguishing features of the Pyramid of Khafre is the entrance located on the north face, which leads visitors into a descending passage leading to the burial chamber. Although the original sarcophagus is no longer present, visitors can still appreciate the intricate design and engineering marvels found within the chambers.

The Pyramid of Khafre is also notable for its intact limestone casing at the upper levels, showcasing the ancient grandeur that these pyramids once possessed. These casing stones, originally smooth and polished, give visitors a glimpse of how majestic these structures must have appeared when they were first constructed.

Adjacent to the Pyramid of Khafre is the Great Sphinx, which is believed to depict the face of Pharaoh Khafre himself. The Sphinx stands as a guardian and symbol of power, adding to the enigmatic allure of the pyramid complex.

When visiting the Pyramid of Khafre, be sure to take a moment to marvel at the intricate stonework and imagine the significance and prestige it held during ancient times. The Pyramid of Khafre is an architectural masterpiece that provides a unique insight into the fascinating world of the ancient Egyptians.

Don’t forget your camera, as the Pyramid of Khafre offers a mesmerizing backdrop for capturing memorable photographs and creating lasting memories of your visit to this ancient wonder.

The Pyramid of Menkaure

The Pyramid of Menkaure, also known as the Pyramid of Mykerinos, is the smallest of the three main pyramids in the Giza complex. Built in approximately 2510-2460 BC, it was constructed as the final resting place for Pharaoh Menkaure, the grandson of Khufu.

Although smaller in size compared to the other two pyramids, the Pyramid of Menkaure still holds tremendous historical and architectural significance. It stands at a height of about 66 meters (216 feet) and is surrounded by three smaller satellite pyramids, believed to be tombs for queens or family members.

Unlike the other pyramids, the Pyramid of Menkaure features a unique outer casing of red granite at its base. This added aesthetic detail distinguishes it from its neighboring structures and showcases the skill and craftsmanship of the ancient Egyptian builders.

Visitors have the opportunity to explore the interior of the Pyramid of Menkaure. Though the burial chamber is relatively plain, it provides insight into the burial practices and rituals of ancient Egypt. The pyramid’s corridors and chambers offer an intimate glimpse into the pharaoh’s journey to the afterlife.

As you stand before the Pyramid of Menkaure, you can marvel at its symmetrical design and intricate masonry. The pyramid’s summit offers a panoramic view of the Giza Plateau, allowing you to appreciate the strategic positioning of these monumental structures in relation to one another.

As you venture around the Pyramid of Menkaure, take the time to explore the nearby Valley Temple, which lies at the base of the pyramid. This temple served as a crucial part of the burial complex, providing a place for the mummification and purification rituals of the pharaoh.

The Pyramid of Menkaure, though smaller in scale, carries immense historical and architectural significance. Visiting this pyramid allows you to immerse yourself in the world of ancient Egypt, learning about the customs, traditions, and spiritual beliefs of this ancient civilization.

Whether you’re an avid history enthusiast or simply drawn to the allure of ancient wonders, the Pyramid of Menkaure is sure to captivate and leave you with a profound appreciation for the ingenuity and artistry of the ancient Egyptians.

The Sphinx, located in the Giza complex, is an iconic and enigmatic symbol of ancient Egypt. This colossal statue, with the body of a lion and the head of a human, is believed to depict Pharaoh Khafre, the builder of the second largest pyramid in the complex.

Standing at about 20 meters (65 feet) in height and 73 meters (240 feet) in length, the Sphinx is an awe-inspiring sight to behold. Its presence adds an air of mystery and intrigue to the pyramid complex, drawing visitors from around the world.

As you approach the Sphinx, you’ll be struck by its imposing size and remarkable preservation. The face of the Sphinx exhibits intricate details, including the pharaoh’s headdress and the serene, enigmatic expression that has captivated people for centuries.

While the body of the Sphinx has suffered erosion over time, the Sphinx still maintains its grandeur and power. The lion’s body symbolizes strength and protection, while the human face represents wisdom and divine authority.

Exploring the area around the Sphinx, you’ll find a small temple known as the Sphinx Temple. This temple was originally used for purification and rituals associated with the Sphinx. Marvel at the beautiful remnants of the temple and imagine the religious practices that took place in its heyday.

The Sphinx has long fascinated archaeologists, historians, and enthusiasts alike. Its true purpose and significance continue to be debated, with theories ranging from it being a guardian of the tombs to it holding secret chambers beneath its paws.

Visiting the Sphinx is an opportunity to experience the allure and mystique of ancient Egypt. Be sure to capture photographs from different angles, as the Sphinx creates a breathtaking backdrop against the desert landscape. Sunset and sunrise are particularly magical times to witness the Sphinx, as the changing light casts captivating shadows.

Whether you’re intrigued by its history, fascinated by its symbolism, or simply awe-inspired by its colossal size, the Sphinx is a must-see attraction that will leave a lasting impression and a deep appreciation for the wonders of ancient Egypt.

Exploring the Pyramids: Inside and Outside

Exploring the Pyramids of Giza is a remarkable journey that takes you back in time to the ancient world of the pharaohs. Beyond their awe-inspiring exteriors, these pyramids contain hidden chambers, intricate passageways, and intriguing mysteries waiting to be discovered.

As you approach the pyramids, you’ll first be struck by their enormity and the meticulous craftsmanship evident in their construction. The outer casing stones, now weathered and eroded, once created a smooth and polished facade that shimmered in the sunlight.

Stepping inside the pyramids is like entering a secret world. Venture through narrow passageways and marvel at the architectural precision that has allowed these structures to withstand the test of time. As you climb or descend the passageways, you’ll feel a sense of wonder and amazement at the sheer scale of the pyramids and the ingenuity of their design.

Inside the pyramids, you’ll encounter different chambers, including the burial chambers where the pharaohs were laid to rest. Though devoid of their original treasures, the chambers offer a glimpse into the sacred rituals and beliefs of the ancient Egyptians.

Each pyramid has its own unique features and exploration opportunities. The Great Pyramid of Khufu, for example, offers the chance to venture into the grand gallery and the King’s Chamber, while the Pyramid of Khafre allows you to witness well-preserved corridors and chambers.

Outside the pyramids, take a moment to soak in the panoramic views of the Giza Plateau. Witness the sprawling desert landscape that surrounds these magnificent structures and appreciate the strategic location chosen by the ancient Egyptians.

Be sure to explore the satellite pyramids and temple complexes that accompany the main pyramids. These structures were intended for the pharaoh’s family members and for offering rituals, adding another layer of intrigue and significance to the pyramidal complex.

While exploring the pyramids, it is important to respect the historical sites and adhere to any guidelines provided by the authorities. Touching or climbing on the walls is strictly prohibited to preserve the integrity of these ancient structures for future generations to appreciate.

Exploring the Pyramids of Giza is a once-in-a-lifetime experience that offers a rare glimpse into the ancient world. It’s an opportunity to witness the ingenuity and skill of the ancient Egyptians and to be a part of the enduring legacy of these architectural wonders.

Important Information for Visitors

When planning your visit to the Pyramids of Giza, it’s essential to be well-prepared to make the most of your experience. Here are some important pieces of information to keep in mind:

• Ticket Information: Entry tickets to the Giza complex are required and can be purchased at the entrance gate. It is recommended to buy tickets in advance or arrive early to avoid long queues. Prices may vary for different areas within the complex, including the pyramids’ interiors and the Sphinx enclosure.
• Opening Hours: The Giza complex is typically open daily from early morning until late afternoon. Check the official websites or local sources for the most up-to-date information regarding opening hours and any temporary closures.
• Photography: Photography is allowed at the Giza complex, including inside the pyramids. Capture the stunning views, but be respectful of other visitors and avoid using flash photography in confined spaces.
• Attire and Comfort: Wear comfortable shoes and dress appropriately for the weather, as the Giza Plateau can get hot during the day. Consider wearing a hat, sunscreen, and loose-fitting clothing to stay comfortable while exploring.
• Guided Tours: Hiring a local tour guide can greatly enhance your visit by providing insightful information and historical context. It’s recommended to book a licensed guide to ensure a knowledgeable and authentic experience.
• Respect the Historical Site: The Pyramids of Giza are not only tourist attractions but also important archaeological sites. Respect the rules and signage in place, and avoid touching or climbing on the pyramids to preserve them for future generations.
• Hydration: Stay hydrated throughout your visit by carrying a water bottle. There are often vendors selling bottled water near the entrance, but it’s a good idea to bring your own to ensure availability.
• Souvenir and Food Stalls: There are various souvenir and food stalls surrounding the pyramids. Exercise caution and be prepared to negotiate prices if you wish to purchase any items. It’s also advisable to bring your own snacks or have a meal before or after your visit.

By keeping these important points in mind, you can have a smooth and enjoyable visit to the Pyramids of Giza while honoring their historical and cultural significance.

Best Time to Visit

The best time to visit the Pyramids of Giza is during the cooler months of the year, typically between October and April. During this time, the temperatures are more moderate, making it more comfortable for exploring the site.

While Egypt enjoys warm weather year-round, the summer months from May to September can be extremely hot, with temperatures soaring above 40°C (104°F). The intense heat can make visiting the pyramids during this time challenging, especially if you plan to venture inside the structures.

In addition to the weather, another consideration is the crowds. The Pyramids of Giza attract visitors from around the world, and the high season typically runs from November to February when the weather is mild. If you prefer to avoid crowds, consider visiting during the shoulder seasons of October or April when tourist numbers tend to be lower.

It’s also worth noting that early mornings and late afternoons are often the best times to visit the pyramids. Arriving early allows you to beat the crowds and have a more peaceful experience. Additionally, the soft morning light or the warm hues of the setting sun create a beautiful ambiance, making for stunning photographs.

It’s important to keep in mind that the Pyramids of Giza are a popular tourist attraction, and regardless of the time you choose to visit, there may still be a moderate level of visitors. To make the most of your visit, plan ahead, purchase tickets in advance, and consider hiring a local guide to help navigate the site and provide insightful information.

Ultimately, the best time to visit the Pyramids of Giza is when the weather is pleasant and comfortable for exploration. Whether you choose the cooler months of winter or the milder months of spring and fall, your visit to these ancient wonders is sure to leave a lasting impression.

Safety Tips

When visiting the Pyramids of Giza, it’s important to prioritize your safety to ensure a smooth and enjoyable experience. Here are some safety tips to keep in mind:

• Stay Hydrated: Egypt’s climate can be hot, especially during the summer months. It’s important to drink plenty of water throughout your visit to stay hydrated. Carry a bottle of water with you and take regular breaks in shaded areas.
• Protect Yourself from the Sun: Shield yourself from the intense sunlight by wearing a hat, sunglasses, and sunscreen. Opt for light, breathable clothing that covers your skin to minimize sunburn and the risk of heatstroke.
• Secure Your Valuables: Keep your valuables, such as passport, wallet, and smartphone, in a secure and concealed place. Avoid displaying large sums of money or wearing expensive jewelry that could attract unwanted attention.
• Be Aware of Your Surroundings: Stay vigilant and aware of your surroundings, especially in crowded areas. Keep an eye on your belongings and be cautious of pickpockets. If something feels suspicious or unsafe, trust your instincts and move to a more secure location.
• Follow Guided Paths: Stick to designated paths and follow the guidance of official signs and guides. Avoid venturing into restricted or prohibited areas as they may pose safety risks or damage the historical site.
• Use Reliable Transportation: If you choose to hire a taxi or ridesharing service, use reputable and licensed providers. Negotiate fares in advance or insist on using a meter to avoid potential disputes. Be cautious when crossing busy streets and adhere to traffic regulations.
• Stay Informed: Prior to your visit, check for any travel advisories or updates regarding the pyramids’ accessibility or safety. Stay informed about local customs and cultural norms to ensure respectful behavior during your visit.
• Travel Insurance: It’s always advisable to have travel insurance that covers medical emergencies, trip cancellations, and lost belongings. Check with your insurance provider to ensure you have adequate coverage for your trip to Egypt.

By following these safety tips, you can enjoy a worry-free visit to the Pyramids of Giza and focus on immersing yourself in the rich history and awe-inspiring wonders of ancient Egypt.

Nearby Attractions

While the Pyramids of Giza steal the spotlight, there are several other notable attractions in the vicinity that offer a deeper exploration of ancient Egypt and its cultural heritage. Here are some nearby attractions to consider visiting:

• The Egyptian Museum: Located in downtown Cairo, the Egyptian Museum is a treasure trove of ancient artifacts and the largest collection of Egyptian antiquities in the world. Explore its vast halls to see iconic artifacts like the golden mask of Tutankhamun and the Royal Mummies.
• Saqqara: Venture to the Saqqara necropolis, just south of Giza, to discover the Step Pyramid of Djoser, considered the earliest colossal stone structure in Egypt. This ancient burial complex offers insights into the evolution of pyramid design and architecture.
• Old Cairo: Take a journey through time in the historic neighborhood of Old Cairo, also known as Coptic Cairo. Visit the Coptic Museum, explore ancient churches like the Hanging Church and the Church of St. Sergius, and wander through the narrow streets to soak in the rich Christian heritage of Egypt.
• Khan El Khalili Bazaar: Immerse yourself in the vibrant ambiance of Cairo’s oldest and most famous souk, Khan El Khalili. Dive into a bustling maze of narrow streets filled with shops selling spices, jewelry, textiles, and a wide array of souvenirs. Don’t forget to haggle for the best prices!
• Nile River Cruises: Embark on a relaxing Nile River cruise to witness Egypt’s beauty from a different perspective. Glide along the legendary river and take in stunning views of Cairo’s skyline, historic landmarks, and lush landscapes while enjoying onboard entertainment and delicious cuisine.
• Memphis and Mit Rahina: Visit the ancient capital of Memphis, located near Saqqara, to explore the open-air museum showcasing colossal statues, temples, and artifacts from ancient times. Adjacent to Memphis is the archaeological site of Mit Rahina, where you can marvel at the ruins of the Temple of Ptah.

These nearby attractions provide a well-rounded experience that complements the visit to the Pyramids of Giza, allowing you to delve deeper into Egypt’s rich history, diverse culture, and archaeological wonders.

Take the opportunity to explore these sites and create a more comprehensive itinerary that showcases the captivating legacy of ancient Egypt.

Recommended Tours and Guides

Exploring the Pyramids of Giza can be a once-in-a-lifetime experience, and having a knowledgeable tour guide can greatly enhance your visit. Here are some recommendations for tours and guides to consider:

• Official Tour Guides: Hiring a licensed tour guide is highly recommended, as they are knowledgeable about the history, architecture, and mysteries of the pyramids. They can provide valuable insights, answer your questions, and ensure you make the most of your time at the site. Look for certified guides who are familiar with the Giza complex and its surrounding attractions.
• Private Tours: Consider booking a private tour that allows you to customize your itinerary and explore the pyramids at your own pace. This option offers personalized attention and flexibility, ensuring a more intimate and tailored experience. Private tours also provide ample opportunity for in-depth discussions and exploration of specific areas of interest.
• Group Tours: Joining a group tour is a popular choice for many visitors, as it offers a cost-effective way to explore the pyramids while enjoying the company of fellow travelers. Group tours often include transportation, entrance fees, and a knowledgeable guide who can provide commentary and insights throughout the visit.
• Sunset Tours: Consider taking a sunset tour, which allows you to witness the pyramids in a different light. The warm hues of the setting sun create a magical ambiance, and you can enjoy breathtaking panoramic views of the pyramids bathed in the golden glow of twilight. Many tour operators offer these specialized tours, providing a unique and memorable experience.
• Combo Tours: For a comprehensive experience, opt for combo tours that include visits to other nearby attractions, such as the Egyptian Museum, Saqqara, or Old Cairo. These tours allow you to explore multiple sites in one day, providing a well-rounded understanding of Egypt’s rich historical and cultural heritage.

When choosing a tour or guide, read reviews, check their credentials, and verify their reputation before making a booking. You can consult travel websites, online forums, or seek recommendations from fellow travelers who have visited the Pyramids of Giza.

Having a knowledgeable guide by your side can deepen your appreciation of the pyramids, enrich your understanding of ancient Egypt, and ensure a memorable and insightful visit to these awe-inspiring wonders.

Visiting the Pyramids of Giza is a journey like no other, offering a profound connection to the ancient world and the remarkable achievements of the Egyptian civilization. The Great Pyramid of Khufu, the Pyramid of Khafre, the Pyramid of Menkaure, and the enigmatic Sphinx stand as testaments to the ingenuity, skill, and spiritual beliefs of the ancient Egyptians.

As you explore the pyramids, you’ll be transported back in time, marveling at the sheer size, intricate architecture, and rich history contained within their walls. Venturing inside, you’ll discover hidden chambers, corridors, and burial chambers that whisper tales of royal lives and ancient rituals.

Beyond the pyramids themselves, the surrounding attractions offer further insight into Egypt’s captivating past. Visit the Egyptian Museum to witness the treasures of Tutankhamun, explore the Saqqara necropolis to see the Step Pyramid of Djoser, or delve into the winding streets of Old Cairo to discover the rich Christian heritage.

When planning your visit, consider the best time to go, taking into account the weather and crowds. Stay hydrated, protect yourself from the sun, and be aware of your surroundings to ensure a safe and enjoyable experience. Hiring a knowledgeable tour guide can greatly enhance your visit, providing valuable insights and a deeper understanding of these ancient wonders.

Ultimately, a visit to the Pyramids of Giza is a transformative experience, inspiring awe, curiosity, and a sense of wonder. It allows you to appreciate the enduring legacy of the ancient Egyptians and invites you to become a part of their fascinating story.

So, embark on this extraordinary journey, stand before these majestic structures, and let the Pyramids of Giza leave an indelible imprint on your soul as you witness firsthand the marvels of ancient Egypt.

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Egypt upgrades Giza Plateau to attract tourists back to Pyramids

CAIRO — Construction engineers and workers have almost completed the first restaurant at the Giza Plateau, where the Great Pyramids of Giza and the Sphinx are located. It will  serve tourists visiting the plateau, the epicenter of Egypt's ancient civilization.

Those visiting the restaurant — an unostentatious structure decorated with simple furniture and tables, but potentially serving the most authentic of Egyptian cuisine — will have an uninterrupted view of the Great Pyramids of Giza, the Sphinx and other sites on the plateau.

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Pyramids of Giza: Attractions

Written by Jess Lee Updated Dec 25, 2023 We may earn a commission from affiliate links ( )

You'll have seen a thousand photographs of the Pyramids of Giza by the time you finally get here, but nothing beats getting up close and personal with these ancient monuments.

Egypt's most famed and feted structures, these ancient tombs of kings guarded by the serene Sphinx have wowed spectators for centuries.

Today, the Pyramids of Giza continue to work their magic on all who visit. No trip to Egypt is complete without time spent here at one of the world's most famous tourist attractions .

Towering incongruously over the edge of Cairo's suburban sprawl, these mighty monuments are a tribute to the power and ambition of Egypt's Pharaonic rulers.

See also: Where to Stay near the Pyramids of Giza

1. Great Pyramid (Pyramid of Cheops or Pyramid of Khufu)

2. eastern cemetery, 3. western cemetery, 4. pyramid of chephren (pyramid of khafre), 5. pyramid of mycerinus (pyramid of menkaure), 7. camel & horse rides at the pyramids, 8. pyramids sound & light show, 9. the grand egyptian museum (gem), history of the pyramids of giza: the only surviving wonder of the ancient world, where to stay near the pyramids of giza, tips and tours: how to make the most of your visit to the pyramids of giza, getting to the pyramids of giza.

Giza's Great Pyramid (also called the Pyramid of Cheops) is not only this ancient site's most famous monument but one of the most well-known monuments in the world .

It was built by the Pharaoh Khufu (commonly called by its Greek transliteration of Cheops) and was known to the ancient Egyptians as Ekhet Khufu ("Horizon of Khufu"). According to Herodotus, 100,000 men worked on its construction for three months every year.

This mammoth structure's cubic content is staggering. Excluding the rock foundation and the interior chambers, the Great Pyramid is 2.3 million cubic meters. The base measurement is 227.5 meters, and the vertical height is 137.2 meters.

The non-claustrophobic can venture into the pyramid's bowels, although there isn't much to see once inside the dank, narrow corridors.

The entrance is by a passage that was cut by tomb robbers some 15 meters below the original entrance. This narrow tunnel leads into the Grand Gallery, a long passage that is a marvel of skillful masonry.

Beyond this is the tomb chamber containing the open, empty, granite sarcophagus, which once would have contained Khufu's mummy.

Excavations on the south and east sides of the Great Pyramid in 1954 brought to light five long cavities for boats, with a 4,500-year-old cedar wood solar barque broken into more than a thousand pieces as a votive offering.

Up until 2021, the painstakingly restored boat was exhibited in a small one-room museum just beside the Great Pyramid, but has now been moved to form part of the collection inside the new (as yet unopened) Grand Egyptian Museum.

On the eastern side of the Pyramid of Cheops are three smaller pyramids, made as tombs for queens and a daughter of the Pharaoh , and a large cemetery for other relatives.

On the south side is a row of large mastabas (tombs) belonging to high dignitaries.

Two mastabas are open for visitors in the eastern cemetery.

The Mastaba of Meresankh III (wife of Pharaoh Khafre) has intricate and colorful reliefs on the interior walls depicting scenes from daily life.

The Mastaba of Seshemnufer IV has an ornate columned entranceway, though is plainer inside.

To the west of the Pyramid of Cheops is the extensive royal cemetery for members of the Royal House and high state officials, established during the fourth Dynasty and used until the sixth.

Here, you'll find the small, columned entry of the Tomb of Senegemib-Inti, which contains some interesting wall carvings.

The Pyramid of Chephren (Pyramid of Khafre) sits 160 meters to the southwest from the Great Pyramid.

Built by Khufu's son Khafre, it at first appears to be larger than his father's earlier pyramid as it stands on a higher piece of land.

A considerable section of the original limestone casing has managed to be preserved on the apex of the pyramid, and the layout of the mortuary temple on the east side can be clearly distinguished.

The pyramid has a height of 135.5 meters and a base measurement of 210.5 meters.

The smallest of the three main Giza pyramids is the Pyramid of Mycerinus (Pyramid of Menkaure), made of unusually large limestone blocks.

It has a vertical height of 62 meters and a base measurement of 108 meters.

On the south side of the pyramid are three smaller pyramids, left unfinished, for relatives of the Pharaoh.

The best panoramic pyramid views of the entire site are from the rocky escarpment four kilometers south of the Pyramid of Mycerinus.

Perhaps the most celebrated monument in Egypt after the Great Pyramid itself, the enigmatic Sphinx is a simple but finely built granite structure shaped like a recumbent lion that sits immediately east of the pyramids.

Hewn from the natural rock, it has the head of a pharaoh (commonly thought to be Chephren) and wears the royal head-cloth and cobra.

Weathering and deliberate mutilation have wrought much damage over the course of the centuries, but in spite of this, the Sphinx still conveys a powerful impression of majesty and artistic achievement.

The total length of the figure is 73.5 meters, and its height is 20 meters.

Despite what some tour guides still insist on telling visitors, Napoleon is not responsible for the missing nose on the Sphinx's face.

According to Arab historians, the nose is thought to have been destroyed at some stage in the Islamic Empires era.

One 14th-century story tells of a pious Muslim, being so upset that locals still made offerings to the Sphinx in the hope that this practice would control the annual Nile flood and hence bring a good harvest, that he hammered off the Sphinx's nose.

If you want to horse ride at the pyramids, it is well worth heading to the village stables (by the Sphinx car park), where the guides are recommended and the horses are kept in good condition.

The best time to go for a horse ride in the pyramid area is sunset , when you can head out into the surrounding desert for views of the monuments as the sun sinks.

Although it's something of a cliché, a camel ride in front of the pyramids is one of those tick-the-list Egyptian things to do. If you're going to get on a camel once during your trip, it should be here.

Unfortunately, many of the camels are not kept in good condition, so it's of the utmost importance that you choose your operator carefully and make sure the camel is healthy and well-fed.

The overly-aggressive camel-touts who hang out on the roadside just before the main entrance ticket office are best avoided.

Prepare to bargain. There's an "official" price of EGP 50 per 30 minutes, but no one keeps to it, and you are expected to cheerfully haggle instead.

The Sound and Light Show at the Giza Pyramids allows you to see these ancient monuments lit up under the night sky with a narrative soundtrack provided by the Sphinx.

This Pyramids Sound and Light Show tour includes tickets to the show, as well as pickup and drop-off from your Cairo hotel.

Currently nearing completion, The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM), when opened, will be the largest museum in the world devoted to one civilization .

The museum is situated on the Giza Plateau, about 2.5 kilometers northwest of the main entrance into the pyramids complex, and when opened, will take the place of the Egyptian Museum (in Downtown Cairo) as the city's main Egyptology museum.

In the museum, the full cache of Tutankhamun's funerary treasure will be on permanent display for the first time since his tomb was discovered in 1922, as well as many other pharaonic artifacts and riches that have never been displayed before due to lack of space.

Opening is pegged for November 2022. Once open, expect tour itinerary offerings to change to reflect this; with the museum just a hop away from the pyramids, most tours will bundle the two together.

Independent travelers with an interest in Egypt's rich history will most likely want to devote an entire day to Giza's tourist attractions once the museum is open.

There is also talk of connecting the museum and pyramids complex by a pedestrian walkway so that visitors who want to walk between the two don't have to use the busy main road.

Built by the rulers of Egypt's Fourth Dynasty (c. 2600-2500) the Pyramids of Giza rank among the oldest surviving man-made structures in the world.

During the Greek and Roman eras, they were marveled at as the first of the Seven Wonders of the World, and they still exert a powerful fascination, both as an extraordinary technical achievement and as a demonstration of the power of the pharaohs, who could marshal tens of thousands of subjects to construct these colossal monuments.

The question of the relationship between the size of a pyramid and the ruler for whom it was built is still unsettled.

It seems probable, however, that the size depended on the pharaoh's personal inclination, power, and economic resources.

It has not been possible to prove an alternative theory that the size of a pyramid might have been increased in stages during the course of a lengthy reign.

Features common to all the pyramids are their situation on the edge of the desert to the west of the Nile and their structure, which was built up from huge blocks of the local limestone and enclosed in a casing, originally polished, of fine-grained white limestone or granite.

Concealed within the great bulk of the pyramid (in the later period) or underground beneath its base (in the earlier period) were the relatively small tomb chamber, a chamber for the cult of the dead pharaoh, and other chambers for the grave goods.

Also common to all pyramids were the entrance on the north side and the mortuary temple on the east side, with a causeway (originally open, later frequently covered) leading up to it from a valley temple on the edge of the Nile Depression.

Luxury Hotels:

• Just steps away from the main entrance to the Pyramids, the historic Marriott Mena House, Cairo has hosted royalty and celebrities amid its 40-acre grounds. There's an outdoor pool amid sprawling lush gardens, and the interior spaces are scattered with antiques.
• The Four Seasons Hotel Cairo at the First Residence is on the Nile's west bank. There are five restaurants and lounges, a pool, and holistic spa, and the large rooms are elegantly attired.

Mid-Range Hotels:

• Sitting just under two kilometers from the main entrance to the Pyramids, the Steigenberger Pyramids Cairo is a five-star resort with mid-range rates. Spacious rooms all have balconies (some with Pyramid views), there is a choice of dining options on-site, and the grounds contain two outdoor swimming pools.

Budget Hotels:

• In the Giza area, with views of the Pyramids from some rooms, Pyramids View Inn has a rooftop with panoramic vistas, a complimentary breakfast, and friendly staff.

Anyone with a decent fitness level can easily walk between the pyramids and the Sphinx (as long as it's not too hot), but if you want to go up to the panoramic viewpoint, you'll need transport within the site. The easiest way to do this is to arrange an organized tour of the area, which means you'll have an air-conditioned vehicle at your disposal. A good tour guide can also help you understand the baffling, long history on display here and help you cope with the many camel and souvenir touts, which can make all the difference to enjoying your visit in the desert heat.

• Full-Day Tour : History lovers will appreciate the Giza Pyramids, Sphinx, Memphis and Saqqara Private Tour , which includes a full day of exploring all the ancient sites in Giza, and beyond to even older Saqqara and Memphis, with an Egyptologist guide. If you want to pack all your pharaonic sightseeing in Cairo into one day, this is an excellent choice, with transport provided from your hotel door.
• Half-Day Tour: If you want to take your sightseeing at a more mellow pace, the Giza Pyramids and Sphinx Private Tour is a half-day trip of the attractions of the Giza Plateau with an Egyptologist guide. It includes pickup and drop-off from your hotel.
• Camel or Horse Riding Tour: For views of the Pyramids and desert beyond, this Sunset Camel or Horse Riding Tour is a great option. It includes pickup and drop-off from your Cairo hotel and your choice of either riding a camel or horse in the desert plains surrounding the Pyramids as the sun sets.

Admission and Visiting

• Timing Your Visit: To escape the crowds and the worst of the desert heat, the earlier you can get here, the better. If you want to enter the interior of the Great Pyramid, also be aware that limited numbers of Great Pyramid entry tickets are sold on a first-come-first-served basis twice a day, at 8am and again at 1pm.
• Tickets: If you miss out on Great Pyramid interior tickets don't fret. Tickets for the interior of the Pyramid of Chephren are sold throughout the day with no limit on numbers.
• By Private Taxi: The easiest, and most popular, way of getting here for independent travelers is by hiring a taxi for a half-day trip in Cairo. The taxi can then shuttle you around the site (if you wish) and return you back to the central city afterwards. If you hire a taxi one way, you can find a return taxi by the Sphinx entrance to take you back into town.
• By Local Transport: You can get to the pyramids using a combination of the Cairo Metro and minibus. Take the metro to Giza and then take a minibus (right outside the Giza metro station exit) or taxi to the pyramids.

More Related Articles on PlanetWare.com

Around the Pyramids: Be sure to schedule plenty of time into your Egypt itinerary to see some of the countries cities and other wonderful sites. Check out our articles on things to in Cairo , exploring Saqqara , and visiting the attractions of Alexandria .

Heading up the Nile: See our articles on Luxor and Aswan if you want to delve into more pharaonic sights. These beautiful cities on the Nile are fun places to visit and are packed with incredible sites, including Abu Simbel , easily visited from Aswan .

More on Egypt

November 1, 2015

14 min read

How Egypt's Great Pyramid Changed Civilization

The construction of Egypt's most famous monument spawned a social organization that changed the world

By Zach Zorich

Late summer in Egypt, around 2525 B.C., and the Nile is flooding. To a worker named Merrer, the deluge means it is time to bring stone to the site of Pharaoh Khufu's pyramid. The journey from the quarry in Tura southeast of the port at Giza is just eight miles. But the heavy cargo of gleaming white limestone, which will form the outer layer of the monument, makes the crafts difficult to maneuver. And the river seems as vast as an ocean when it rises over its banks. Merrer has sailed the open seas before, however. The fleet of barges and the 50 men under his command are in experienced hands.

He eyes their destination. In the distance he can see the floodwaters lapping against a massive limestone wall. Other boats carrying grain, lumber and livestock sail around the east end of the wall to unload their cargoes in the town there, but Merrer's barges aren't going that far. They make landfall north of the wall, where the golden bedrock of the Giza Plateau slopes down to the river, forming a natural ramp that will facilitate moving the limestone to the construction site.

From the river's edge, Merrer can see what will be the tallest building in the world for at least the next 3,800 years. Thousands of workers swarm across the construction site of the pyramid, which will eventually serve as Khufu's tomb, hauling the giant stones into position and checking and rechecking their alignment. The structure is nearing completion. Soon the upper layers of stone blocks will be in place, and the pyramid will be fully encased in polished Tura limestone and topped with a gilded capstone.

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Who were the people who built Khufu's pyramid and the pyramids of Egypt's other pharaohs, and why did they devote their lives to the task? Greek historian Herodotus, writing in the fifth century B.C., thought that the pyramids had been built by armies of slaves motivated by the whips of their overseers. In the past few decades, however, discoveries of other written sources have shown that gangs of Egyptian citizens provided most of the labor. But these sources revealed next to nothing about the lives of those people. For all archaeologists knew, they could have been low-paid laborers who were treated little better than slaves—half-starved, bedraggled men lashed until the limestone was unloaded from the barges onto wood sledges and dragged up to the pyramid.

Now new findings, including a papyrus ledger that documents the activities of Merrer and his crew, are finally bringing the pyramid workers into focus—and showing the iconic monuments they built in an entirely new light. Excavations at two key sites suggest that the significance of the pyramids reaches far beyond being feats of engineering. It turns out the workers who built these structures did not just drag stone blocks. They were an elite labor force that also sailed trade missions to locales hundreds of miles away to bring back supplies and building materials. The development of the highly sophisticated labor organization and trade network needed to build the pyramids did more than make it possible to construct huge monuments; it set the stage for centuries of Egyptian prosperity and altered the course of later civilizations.

Aiming high

Pyramid building did not begin on the Giza Plateau. Pharaoh Netjerikhet, who ruled from 2650 to 2620 B.C., built the first such monument, a six-tiered step pyramid some 200 feet tall that still dominates the skyline at Saqqara, about 15 miles south of Giza. The trend of building large pyramids really took off with fourth dynasty Pharaoh Sneferu, who built three pyramids during his reign from 2575 to 2545 B.C. When Sneferu finally passed away, his son Khufu (sometimes known as Cheops) succeeded him. For Khufu, there was only one way to outdo his father: he had to build a bigger pyramid. And he would erect it on the edge of the Giza Plateau for all to see. Khufu's ambition led to the construction of Egypt's most famous monument, the 481-foot-tall, 756-foot-wide Great Pyramid of Giza.

Khufu's striving did not end there. A mortuary temple was built on the east side of the pyramid where priests could communicate with the deceased pharaoh and make offerings to support him in the afterlife. On either side of the temple enormous pits were dug to hold full-sized boats, probably for Khufu to sail in the afterlife. Two more boat pits were dug on the south side of the pyramid. And three smaller pyramids that served as tombs for important royal women stand just south of the mortuary temple. All told, the complex was a colossal undertaking.

For years archaeologists have obsessed over the engineering of the pyramids. Experts estimate that construction of the Great Pyramid alone would have required about 26,000 people to set the blocks at the bottom of the structure. As the pyramid rose and the surface area at the top diminished, the number of individuals working at the site would have decreased. Theories for how workers moved the hefty stones into place abound. The leading idea holds that they built an internal ramp to cart the limestone to successively higher positions in the structure. But in focusing on practical details of construction, scholars missed the greater importance of the pyramids. Until now.

Mark Lehner is shaking hands and exchanging warm Arabic greetings with visitors next to Heit el-Ghurab (“Wall of the Crow”)—a 30-foot-tall barrier half a mile east of the Great Pyramid. In Merrer's day, the wall would have stood north of the town, which is also called Heit el-Ghurab. Today, with the river having moved east, Cairo's urban sprawl, rather than Nile floodwater, sloshes up against the wall. When people take photographs of the pyramids, they always turn their backs to this area, preferring the vastness of the open desert to Cairo's unruly skyline. Archaeologists, too, long ignored this place—an expanse of sand wedged between the escarpment of the Giza Plateau and the encroaching city. Lehner, an Egyptologist at the Oriental Institute at the University of Chicago and director of Ancient Egypt Research Associates, based in Massachusetts, began working here in 1988 with a very specific goal in mind. He realized that the mystery of the Giza pyramids is not how so many big stones were cut and stacked; the mystery is the people. “We see the human touch everywhere,” he says. “So where are the humans?” He came to Heit el-Ghurab to look for them.

Lehner is equally at home in modern Cairo and ancient Heit el-Ghurab. Today he is dressed for fieldwork in blue jeans, a multipocketed vest, broad-brimmed hat and a dusty pair of boots; all have absorbed the color of the desert sand. He has an air of friendly authority and is something of a local celebrity: throughout the day random onlookers shout, “Doctor Mark!” hoping to attract his attention. One of the women he is chatting with unlocks an iron gate, and Lehner leads the way into the old town.

When Lehner and his team began excavating the site, they expected to find a modest encampment at most—a handful of nondescript buildings where poor, low-status laborers would have eked out their miserable existence each night before trudging back to the pyramids in the morning to drag more stones. Instead the team uncovered something far more elaborate—a city whose layout and architecture had been carefully preplanned by Khufu's regime. Next to the wall the excavators found where the work crews lived, an area Lehner named “the Gallery Complex” because it is made up of long, narrow buildings with streets between them. The buildings each contained hearths and sleeping platforms for 20 people—the number of men in a work team—plus an extra room that may have been for their overseer.

Mud-brick walls mark the spots where the buildings stood; they are only about two feet high now, probably eroded by the desert wind. South of the Gallery Complex stood the bakeries and breweries, as evidenced by the bread ovens and beer jars found in the remains of the buildings there. South of the bakeries lies a large building next to what appear to be silos for storing grain and an enclosure wall that may have been used as a corral for livestock. West of the bakeries is a neighborhood that boasted big houses. The garbage dumps in this area showed that the residents here were eating a lot of very expensive veal, and clay sealings found in the vicinity bear the titles of high-ranking individuals, suggesting that the buildings served as the homes and offices for the city's administrators.

Far from being treated little better than slaves, Merrer's crew and the rest of Heit el-Ghurab's estimated 6,000 residents appear to have lived quite comfortably. The findings suggest that after a long day's work of unloading the barges, the pyramid builders would have headed into town to eat. The smell of baking bread and brewing beer would have wafted from the bakeries a few hundred feet away, advertising what was on the menu. Meat would have been offered, too—probably goat for the crew, beef for the foreman. And remains of distinctive ceramic shipping containers suggest that they may have had access to olive oil imported from the Levant, at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean, a frill unavailable to most Egyptians.

Why did Pharaoh Khufu invest so heavily in Heit el-Ghurab and its residents? At the time the pyramids were being built, the positioning of the Nile along the north and eastern sides of the city would have made it a prime location. Lehner believes that Heit el-Ghurab was not a ramshackle “workers' town” but a Nile port that was at the nexus of a vast trading network used to bring in all the supplies for building the pyramids. Those supplies included far more than just stone: much of the food and clothing for the workers, as well as the tools that were used in the construction. Even the luxury items owned by the priests and officials overseeing the project may have come through Heit el-Ghurab. The city was essential to pyramid operations. And the workers themselves were a precious resource. Not only did they haul the limestone from Tura, they were capable of sailing far longer trade missions, too. An analysis of the charcoal found in the workers' quarters showed that a small amount of the wood they burned was from trees—cedar, olive and pine—that grew only in the Levant, hundreds of miles away. That exotic wood may have come from broken ship parts, and it suggests to Lehner that the crews living at Heit el-Ghurab were sailing trade missions as well as setting stones.

All for one

Khufu exploited government, labor and trade systems that his predecessors implemented before he came to power. But his pyramid project, unprecedented in its scope, drove the development of these infrastructures to dizzying new heights and in so doing primed Egypt to flourish in the centuries to come. Excavation of another site is also yielding insights into how Khufu realized his grand vision.

About 120 miles southeast of Heit el-Ghurab, Gregory Marouard looks like he is walking on the surface of the Gulf of Suez. In reality, the archaeologist treads an ancient stone pier that lies right at the water's surface here at the site of a long-ago port, now known as Wadi el-Jarf. The pier curves hundreds of feet into the sea, and Marouard is taking advantage of an extremely low tide to make precise measurements of it. Project leader Pierre Tallet of Paris-Sorbonne University stands on the beach in the battering wind, explaining the significance of the site.

Preliminary evidence suggests that Khufu's father, Sneferu, built the harbor, which offers the shortest possible crossing of the Red Sea to the Sinai peninsula's copper mines. Mining copper was a major undertaking that involved taking perhaps 1,000 workers to the mine, provisioning them for two to three months while they extracted the metal and then transporting the copper to the cities that needed it. Most pharaohs, including apparently Sneferu, launched only one copper expedition during their reigns. Khufu, however, had the money, the manpower and the will to mount at least two such expeditions, utilizing the harbor far more intensively than his father ever had. He needed to do so to obtain enough copper to make the many chisels, saws and other tools required to build the Great Pyramid. Wadi el-Jarf is a rare find. “We know nothing about harbors in the ancient Egyptian period,” Tallet reflects. “This is probably the oldest harbor ever found.”

Evidence linking the harbor to Khufu's expeditions is everywhere at Wadi el-Jarf. For example, a few hundred feet from the water's edge, excavators are working on two long, rectangular buildings that are separated into cells of equal size. One building is made up of five cells, and the other is made up of 10. Tallet says that the cells may have housed both the cargoes and the crews of ships. Dozens of clay sealings have been found throughout these buildings. Goods were often shipped in bags that were tied with rope and sealed with a blob of clay that was impressed with the seal of whoever owned the bag's contents. Many of the sealings bear Khufu's name.

Other finds document the activities that took place at Wadi el-Jarf in startling detail. Tallet's team has focused much of its energy on excavating a series of chambers that were dug into a hillside about a mile from the beach. In between copper expeditions the boats were disassembled and stored in these chambers. Many of them still contain pieces of rope from the rigging and even some small pieces of wood with red-ink inscriptions indicating how to reassemble the boats.

Even more remarkable, the excavators discovered the papyrus records that Merrer had written some 4,500 years ago during one of the final years of Khufu's rule. It has taken Tallet years to conserve and reassemble the bits of papyrus, but the fragments clearly contain the best records available of the day-to-day activities of ancient Egyptian laborers. After delivering the Tura limestone to Giza, Merrer took his crew north to build a port on the Mediterranean Sea. When that mission was completed, they were sent to Wadi el-Jarf, from which he would transport copper at the end of Khufu's reign in 2525 B.C. Merrer's first order of business at Wadi el-Jarf would have been to have his men open the chambers where the dismantled boats were stored, carry them to the beach and begin putting the 80-foot-long vessels back together, following the instructions inscribed on each piece in red ink. They then spent a few months ferrying food from Egypt to Sinai for the miners and bringing back the newly mined copper to Wadi el-Jarf.

Nearly everything Merrer's crew did, according to the papyrus, was in service to the construction of the Great Pyramid. What, if not slavery, motivated these men to apply their many skills to this project and not some other venture? Clues come from the history of Egyptian government. From its beginning in 2950 B.C., Egypt was different from other states that existed at the time. The first pharaoh, Narmer, had brought all of Egypt from the Mediterranean coast south to the granite quarries at Aswan under his control through sheer military might. At the same time, Mesopotamia was ruled by dozens of small city-states, each governed by its own king, who shared power with other religious figures and wealthy families, says Pascal Butterlin of Pantheon-Sorbonne University in France. Egypt was probably the largest area controlled by one ruler in the world at the time, and the ultimate authority for all things within its borders was the pharaoh.

The concentration of all religious and political power in the hands of the pharaoh meant that Egyptian society operated in a different way from other kingdoms, such as the Mesopotamian city-states, that existed at the time. Whereas Mesopotamian kings claimed a close relationship with their gods, the Egyptian pharaohs believed they actually were gods. Bob Brier, an Egyptologist at Long Island University, thinks the divine kingship of the pharaohs allowed them to command the obedience of their subjects in a way that the rulers of other states could not. Egyptian texts support this idea, according to Henry Wright, an expert in the formation of early states at the University of Michigan. They show that the laborers were religiously motivated and were probably coming to work on the pyramids out of an ideological commitment, not just a need to perform a certain amount of labor that they owed to the nation under Egyptian law. “They are not just building a tomb for some guy,” Wright observes. “They are building a tomb for a god.” That distinction may have been what made the pyramids possible.

A tipping point

In turn, the pyramids and the infrastructure they necessitated made other things possible. Although Wadi el-Jarf was abandoned just 50 years after it was built, having served its purpose, it paved the way for the building of another, far more successful port farther north. Called Ayn Sukhna, this port was closer to the capital city of Memphis and other places where copper was needed, including Giza and later the funerary complex at Abusir, located about eight miles south of the Great Pyramid. Ayn Sukhna would play a lasting role in building Egypt's wealth, sending and receiving cargo ships from across the Red Sea for nearly 1,000 years.

For its part, Heit el-Ghurab continued to be a major focal point of trade through the rest of the fourth dynasty, when Khufu's successors Khafre and Menkaure built their own pyramids. But after Menkaure was laid to rest, the age of the Giza pyramids was over. In 2450 B.C., when the fifth dynasty began, funerary monuments became much more modest, and the city at Heit el-Ghurab was abandoned. At first glance, these changes might seem to signal a downturn for Egypt. Large building projects such as the pyramids are often considered general indicators of a society's wealth. Indeed, for decades many Egyptologists have thought that the pharaohs stopped building gigantic monuments to themselves because the nation had grown poorer.

Lehner makes a different argument. He thinks priorities shifted at the beginning of the fifth dynasty and the trade and labor infrastructure that earlier pharaohs had created to build the pyramids were redirected to build projects in the provinces that helped to sustain the nation's prosperity for centuries. This infrastructure was a hugely powerful tool, one with coordinated supply chains of resources that spanned hundreds of miles beyond Egypt's borders and organized the efforts of more than one million people under a single authority. “The network became more important than the reason that created the network in the first place,” Lehner asserts. “It was a tipping point toward modernity.”

Modernity, in Lehner's view, is the development of a more complex bureaucracy with distributed organization that fosters local control over labor and resources, rather than direct control by the pharaoh's family. Evidence for this complex bureaucracy comes from the Palermo Stone, a piece of a carving discovered sometime before 1877 that recorded the achievements of pharaohs from the third through fifth dynasties. Entries made during the reign of Userkaf, the first pharaoh of the fifth dynasty, show that he increased the number of plantations being created and made tremendous donations of land to the cult of the Sun God Ra as ways to spur development in the countryside. Overseeing this expansion required more bureaucrats, who then wanted to show off their status with luxury goods and big tombs. Supplying these new rural populations, meanwhile, increased demand for basic goods. The result was a self-sustaining feedback loop of demand and supply that not only created wealth for Egypt but also lifted the economies of its trading partners abroad.

Wright agrees with Lehner up to a point. “It's certainly a tipping point,” he allows. “It is an organizational revolution.” But he balks at calling it modernity. In Wright's view, Egypt in the fifth dynasty was missing one of the defining characteristics of a “modern” society: a change in thought systems. Modern societies, he argues, have rapidly growing bodies of technical knowledge and systems confirming and verifying that the information is true. Although the ancient Egyptians certainly had an important body of technical knowledge, much of their knowledge was ritualized and obtained through divination.

Disagreements over what constitutes modernity notwithstanding, scholars agree that Egypt's sophisticated system of control was a significant advance. Future excavations should reveal exactly how this development played out. Tallet plans to continue scouring Wadi el-Jarf for more evidence of the extent of Egypt's trade network. He also continues to translate Merrer's records of the work that his crew completed. Tallet suspects that trade missions to the land of Punt, which is believed to be in modern-day Sudan, sailed out of Wadi el-Jarf, but he has yet to establish that connection. Meanwhile Lehner will continue the enormous job of excavating Heit el-Ghurab and analyzing the emerging clues about life in the city long ago.

Yet the best evidence of the economic revolution that the pyramids wrought may not be in Heit el-Ghurab or Wadi el-Jarf or on the Giza Plateau. Lehner points to outposts in Egypt's Western Desert and estates at Shaykh Sayed in middle Egypt as places that may yield further indications that it was the small communities far from ancient Egypt's urban core that benefited from the wealth that poured into the nation as a result of its centralized bureaucracy under a divine king. In the end, Khufu's true achievement was not erecting the Great Pyramid but rather building a network of trading partners and organizing the labor of an entire nation. “It wasn't a technological wonder,” Brier says of Khufu's monument. “It was a sociological wonder.”

Zach Zorich is a freelance writer and a contributing editor at Archaeology Magazine .

Early tourists visiting the Pyramids and the ruins of Ancient Egypt, 1860-1930

Tourists take tea atop the Great Pyramid. 1938.

By the late eighteenth century, Egypt had been reduced to nothing more than an impoverished and neglected corner of the Ottoman Empire, crippled by endless power struggles among its Mamluk leadership.

Then in 1798, Napoleon arrived at the head of a French army, closely followed by the British, who had hitherto shown little interest in Egypt.

After the French retreat, Egypt became gradually Westernised under the Albanian Ottoman Muhammad Ali Pasha, so that by the time the English novelist Thackeray visited Alexandria in 1845, the Nile ‘was lined with steel mills’ and looked ‘scarcely Eastern at all’.

Egypt’s early tourism trade started in the 19th century and increased in popularity alongside the rise of Egyptology as an academic and amateur pursuit. Especially, after the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, it became much easier to visit Egypt.

Organized group holidays offering an all-inclusive price that reduced the travelers’ costs were an innovation of the 1840s. Thomas Cook (1808-1892), a brilliant entrepreneur from England, is seen as their inventor and thus the pioneer of commercialized mass tourism.

In the 1870s, Cook offered his famous tour of Palestine and the Nile, a way for wealthy people to explore the wonders of Ancient Egypt. Many of these tourists took pictures in front of the ancient ruins or the Great Sphinx, some of them even climbed all the way to the top of the pyramids.

British tourists. 1900.

Scores of photographers, seeking to establish their studios, began arriving in Egypt following the tourist gaze. They hauled heavy equipment across the desert to photograph the wonders of the Nile Valley.

Some opened studios in the larger cities where they sold their wares to tourists; a few were engaged by Egyptologists to document excavations. Travelers exploring the monuments of ancient Egypt could return home with souvenir photographs of the sights they encountered.

For Europeans, Egypt and Egyptian history offered a more vivid and exotic picture of the ancient world than probably any other culture. With a history covering over 3,000 years, dynasties of pharaohs lasting for centuries, and extraordinary figures like Alexander, Cleopatra, and Tutankhamun illuminating the story, this is hardly surprising.

The pictures collected here are part of a collection documenting the British occupation of Egypt and show the early tourists exploring the ruins of Ancient Egypt.

Britsh tourists in front of the Great Sphinx. 1910.

The ruins of Ancient Egypt. 1905.

Some of the more adventuresome tourists were determined to see the view from the top of the 455-foot Pyramid of Cheops.

The Prince of Wales and the Duke of Gloucester climb one of the pyramids. 1930.

British tourists in Egypt. 1895.

Egyptians and tourists clamber up one of the pyramids. 1880.

Tourists in 1892.

The smooth white limestone which had once encased the pyramid had long since been torn off for use in buildings in Cairo, leaving the massive structural blocks for tourists and local guides to clamber over. 1930.

Locals helping a tourist climbing the pyramid. 1860.

With the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869, visits by wealthy tourists increased. 1900.

Early tourists in Egypt.

A lady climbing the pyramid. 1900.

It was quite a challenge to climb the pyramid! (1867)

Men rest atop the Great Pyramid. 1900.

Photographer Lewis Larsson composes a photo from atop the Great Pyramid. 1900.

A view from the top of the pyramid. 1900.

Egyptian men watch as the Graf Zeppelin floats over the pyramids of Giza. 1931.

Two ladies and a local man watching the sunset. 1925.

(Photo credit: Library of Congress).

Updated on: November 30, 2021

Any factual error or typo?  Let us know.

How to make the most of visiting the Great Pyramids of Giza

Egypt has faced down many myths and misconceptions ever since Ancient Greek historian, Herodotus, claimed to have seen hooved hippos and flying snakes with bat-like wings on the banks of the River Nile in the fifth century BCE. Thousands of years later, and vast numbers of visitors still arrive armed with dubious information – albeit more about tourist traps and top selfie spots than soaring serpents.

At the Great Pyramids of Giza, west of Cairo , for example, tourists often show up expecting to traverse the archaeological site’s 16,500 hectares on foot in under an hour, but end up leaving with a fake papyrus scroll in one hand and an empty wallet in the other.

“There are many things to be aware of while visiting the pyramids,” explains Marwa Hafez, one of the country’s first female Egyptologists and tour guides. “The weather can be intensely hot, the sellers are very persistent and it’s easy to miss out on so much of the history and culture if you don’t come prepared.”

Before venturing to the UNESCO -listed heritage area, read our essential guide to make the most of a visit to the Great Pyramids – and what to avoid.

The Great Pyramids of Giza

Give yourself plenty of time to explore

The Giza complex is vast, covering extensive grounds that span 16,500 hectares, and there's a wealth of history and architecture to absorb. Beyond the three main pyramids, there are several lesser-temples and tombs to discover, so make sure to give yourself at least four hours in Giza. The Egyptian sun can be relentless, and a day at the pyramids involves a lot of walking with very little shade, so remember to bring plenty of water and wear comfortable footwear. For the best views, head to the panoramic points dotted around the far reaches of the complex, where the pyramids appear perfectly aligned against the Giza skyline in one sweeping scene.

Bring plenty of small change

Navigating the Egyptian system of baksheesh – a baffling blend of tipping, charity, and at times, what seems like outright bribery – can be perplexing. “It’s usually given to workers and even to those in public service like bank tellers and hospital staff,” says local student Mohammed Yaseen, over a glass of mint tea and dominoes at one of the lively cafes skirting nearby Abu Al Houl Street. “The amount is usually based on quality of service and varies depending on the situation and the relationship between the individuals.” The unwritten rule around the pyramids is more straightforward: if someone does something for you, no matter how minor, unsolicited, or unexpected, they’ll likely expect a few Egyptian pounds for their efforts. Hustlers are even known to demand steep tips for wandering into the background of your photo or dispensing dubious information about visiting hours — and if you do give in, prepare for a crowd as others follow, hoping for their share. Don’t always feel the need to pay out but if someone genuinely helps you out, it's generally wise to hand over a few coins.

The tunnels into the pyramids may feel claustrophobic, particularly in the heat

Pick the right entrance

The main entrance near the Marriott Hotel Mena House is typically busier and offers a classic approach to the site, but the gate next to the Great Sphinx is your ticket to quicker access, especially if capturing that perfect shot with the iconic statue is a priority. Entry to the complex isn't free, and the cost can vary. As of January 2024, general admission is EGP540 (approximately $11.50), and if you're keen on exploring the inner sanctums and burial chambers, there’s an additional charge – $19.20 to enter the Great Pyramid, and $4.70 for the other two. Venturing inside these ancient wonders is an experience in itself, although it’s not for everyone — especially if you’re claustrophobic. Handrails and lamps have been installed, but the passages are as narrow as a metre at points and the air is heavy, especially during Egypt’s hotter months. Contrary to what you might expect, there are no hieroglyphics inside, but you will see the stone sarcophagi of the ancient kings and pass through the Robber’s Tunnel — an entrance dug by medieval looters.

Avoid riding camels and horses

Set aside your Lawrence of Arabia fantasies and appreciate the animals from a distance. The standards of animal welfare at tourist sites sometimes fall short of what visitors expect, leading to uncomfortable scenes of over-burdened, distressed horses, in particular, struggling under the harsh desert sun. According to Tegan Joke Van der Post, who provides free veterinary treatment to thousands of the area’s animals at the Good Karma Sanctuary near the Great Sphinx, horses are sometimes worked for 18 hours a day in temperatures that can soar to 45°C. If you’re intent on riding, she advises looking around in advance for a reputable stable – such as Ride Egypt , which runs excursions from its purpose-built facilities – and checking carefully for any signs of mistreatment. “Never go on a horse or camel if you haven't seen it without a saddle so you can look for wounds, and insist that it gets a drink of water first,” she says. “If the horse gobbles down water you know he didn't have any all day, which can point to greater issues.”

Visit early to avoid the heat and crowds

Go at the right time to avoid huge groups

The pyramids are bathed in a beautiful golden light during the morning and early afternoon, especially from the Great Sphinx gate. As the day progresses, and the sun begins to set behind their peaks, the light becomes less captivating, casting long shadows and dimming the majestic appearance of the site. Arriving early in the morning not only allows you to see the pyramids in their best light but also helps you avoid the more intense midday sun. “The best time to visit is at 7am,” explains Hafez. “If you can’t make it that early, go after 11am, which is just after the rush hour for the big groups, but expect the weather to be warm.” The complex is usually open from 8am-4pm from October to March, and from 7am-6pm from April to September, but hours are subject to change, so check on the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities website or with your hotel for the latest information.

Arrange your guide and transport in advance

Although it’s possible to visit the pyramids alone, good guides can significantly enhance your understanding of these ancient wonders. Booking one in advance after checking reviews online is the best way to promise a memorable (and historically accurate) experience. Around the pyramids, many vendors hawking for last-minute tour business sport official-looking lanyards, but appearances can be deceiving — verify their credentials or affiliation before engaging in any services or handing over money. When in doubt, it's best to consult directly with verified staff members or head to the ticket centre for information. Navigating transportation to and from the pyramids can also be tricky and expensive if left to the last minute. Taxis to the site often charge premium rates, especially if you’re hailing them on the spot — and waiting for an Uber or Careem for your return trip can mean long delays. Arranging a car service from your hotel through a reputable company beforehand not only secures a set price but makes sure your ride will be ready and waiting for you when you need the air conditioning the most.

Make time to explore the area

Explore the area around the pyramids

The immediate vicinity around the two main exit points is full of tourist trappings, but embracing the lively atmosphere can be part of the adventure. Beyond the obvious, there are a few less-visited corners worth discovering. Wander through the criss-cross of narrow alleyways in the surrounding Haram district, for example, and you'll stumble upon local eateries serving authentic Egyptian fare, smaller shops with handcrafted goods, and quiet spots offering unexpected views of the pyramids. El Gizawy restaurant is a highlight, turning out exceptional falafel sandwiches 24 hours a day just a few minutes' walk away from the Great Sphinx exit, while Koshary Hekaya will whip you up a hearty bowl of Egypt’s carb-heavy national dish (chickpeas, lentils, pasta and rice topped with crispy onions and a rich, spicy tomato sauce) for little more than a dollar.

But avoid the papyrus museums

Countless shops and “museums” will offer to show and sell “ancient” papyrus and “relics”, but the authenticity of items is questionable at best. You might also be enticed by vendors, including street children, offering “free” souvenirs. These gifts might seem like harmless tokens of the local hospitality — but approach with caution. But what starts as a complimentary gesture often quickly evolves into a sales pitch or a request for tips. “A lot of people try to sell you things and follow you everywhere,” adds Hafez. “If you have no experience and are too polite then they will ask you for more and more.” Be kind but firm and you won’t have any problems.

Monday, July 08, 2024

Tourism Review

Respected Voice of Tourism

• Weekly Travel News

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF TOURISM ON EGYPT'S HERITAGE

In the aftermath of militant islamic attacks in the 1990"s, the number of tourists in Egypt dropped. However, the turn of the millennium saw figures increase. In 2004, 8 million people came to the North African country from abroad. Last year, the amount rose to 8.6 million people, who proceeded to spend USD6.5 billion. This year has seen an increase of 12% on 2005 and the total amount of people expected to come to Egypt is predicted to reach 16 million by 2014. Tourism is one of the main sources of foreign currency for Egypt.

The Mediterranean coastline of Egypt offers an exotic and relatively inexpensive holiday to lovers of sea and sun. The country boasts a range of ancient sites, known to every schoolchild: the sphinx, great pyramids and the valley of the kings. But the visits to such monuments have been causing concern amongst representatives of the Egyptian tourism industry. The increasing numbers of tourists are damaging the ancient sites they come to see. Comparisons have even been made with the weather and erosion, as some believe that huge influxes of people speed up the ageing of attractions more than the natural elements themselves. Tourists are said to be wearing away paintings with bags and bodies. Similarly, increasing numbers of people are causing higher rates of perspiration and humidity which in turn is causing walls to wear away.

However, attempts are being made for bodies such as Egypt"s Supreme Council of Antiquities to work together with tourist organisations in order to solve this problem.

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Saype reveals his art work at the pyramids of Giza

How Many Workers Did It Take to Build the Great Pyramid of Giza?

• Data Source

The Great Pyramid of Giza was built circa 2600 BC and was the world’s tallest structure for nearly 4000 years. It consists of an estimated 2.3 million blocks with a weight on the order of 6-7 million tons. How many people did it take to construct the Great Pyramid? Vaclav Smil in Numbers Don’t Lie gives an interesting method of calculation:

The Great Pyramid’s potential energy (what is required to lift the mass above ground level) is about 2.4 trillion joules. Calculating this is fairly easy: it is simply the product of the acceleration due to gravity, the pyramid’s mass, and its center of mass (a quarter of its height)…I am assuming a mean of 2.6 tons per cubic meter and hence a total mass of about 6.75 million tons. People are able to convert about 20 percent of food energy into useful work, and for hard-working men that amounts to about 440 kilojoules a day. Lifting the stones would thus require about 5.5 million labor days (2.4 trillion/44000), or about 275,000 days a year during [a] 20 year period, and about 900 people could deliver that by working 10 hours a day for 300 days a year. A similar number might be needed to emplace the stones in the rising structure and then smooth the cladding blocks…And in order to cut 2.6 million cubic meters of stone in 20 years, the project would have required about 1,500 quarrymen working 300 days per year and producing 0.25 cubic meters of stone per capita…the grand total would then be some 3,300 workers. Even if we were to double that in order to account for designers, organizers and overseers etc. etc….the total would be still fewer than 7,000 workers. …During the time of the pyramid’s construction, the total population of Egypt was 1.5-1.6 million people, and hence the deployed force of less than 10,000 would not have amounted to any extraordinary imposition on the country’s economy.

I was surprised at the low number and pleased at the unusual method of calculation. Archeological evidence from the nearby worker’s village suggests 4,000-5,000 on site workers, not including the quarrymen, transporters and designers and support staff. Thus, Smil’s calculation looks very good.

What other unusual calculations do you know?

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